In the depths of ancient Egyptian workshops, artisans ground mysterious blue stones into powder, transforming clay vessels into objects of stunning cerulean beauty. They could not have imagined that the same element responsible for their prized glazes would, millennia later, pulse through the batteries powering humanity’s digital revolution. Cobalt—element 27 on the periodic table—embodies one of chemistry’s most remarkable metamorphoses: from a pigment that adorned pharaohs’ tombs to the critical mineral enabling our transition to sustainable energy.

Be sure to check out interesting facts about cobalt and all other critical raw materials (CRMs), as well.

A Complete History Of Cobalt

The story of cobalt unfolds as a remarkable journey from ancient pigments to the beating heart of modern technology. This silvery-blue metal, once merely a coloring agent for ceramics and glass, has transformed into an indispensable element powering our digital age and sustainable future. Throughout millennia, cobalt has shaped artistic expression, industrial processes, and geopolitical landscapes in ways that few elements can claim. Its evolution from mysterious ore to strategic resource illuminates humanity’s technological progress, revealing how a single element can catalyze revolutions in warfare, energy, agriculture, and social structures.

The Artistic Genesis (2600 BCE – 1800 CE)

The story begins in the sun-baked workshops of ancient Egypt, where craftsmen discovered that certain blue minerals from Western Desert oases could transform ordinary pottery into objects of stunning beauty. This early mastery spread eastward, reaching Chinese kilns by 1400 BCE, where Persian cobalt oxide became the secret ingredient in the legendary blue and white porcelain that would captivate the world for millennia. The Venetian glassmakers of Murano later elevated cobalt to luxury status—at 100 gold ducats per pound, cobalt blue glass became more precious than many gemstones.

The element’s very name emerged from fear and superstition. Saxon miners in the 1520s, encountering toxic arsenide ores that released deadly fumes, blamed malevolent mountain spirits called “kobolds” for their suffering. Little did they know they were handling the future foundation of global industry.

The Scientific Awakening (1735 – 1920)

Georg Brandt’s 1735 isolation of metallic cobalt marked humanity’s first conscious manipulation of this element as a distinct chemical entity. The subsequent development of cobalt blue pigment by Thénard in 1802 revolutionized both art and industry, while Norway’s Blaafarveværket operations demonstrated that cobalt could sustain entire economic ecosystems—at its peak producing 80% of the world’s supply.

The industrial age revealed cobalt’s remarkable metallurgical properties. From Mushet’s tool steels that tripled cutting efficiency to Haynes’ Stellite alloys that could withstand extreme wear, cobalt began its transformation from colorant to critical engineering material. The discovery of its catalytic properties in 1901 opened entirely new chemical frontiers, ultimately enabling synthetic fuel production through the Fischer-Tropsch process.

The Strategic Metal Era (1914 – 1990)

Two world wars cemented cobalt’s strategic importance. Its incorporation into high-speed steels, armor-piercing projectiles, and eventually jet engine superalloys that could withstand temperatures exceeding 1000°C made it indispensable to military power. The Manhattan Project’s use of cobalt in radiation detection equipment foreshadowed its dual role in both destruction and healing—while Szilard theorized the apocalyptic cobalt bomb, medical researchers were developing cobalt-60 radiotherapy that would save countless cancer patients.

The Congo’s independence in 1960 triggered the first of several cobalt crises, revealing how geological accidents had concentrated 60% of global production in one of the world’s most politically volatile regions. The Shaba conflicts of the 1970s sent prices soaring from $6 to $65 per pound, forcing industrialized nations to confront their vulnerability to supply disruptions and establish strategic stockpiles that would shape geopolitics for decades.

The Digital & Energy Revolution (1990 – Present)

Sony’s 1990 commercialization of lithium-cobalt-oxide batteries initiated cobalt’s most transformative chapter yet. With an energy density of 150 Wh/kg, these batteries enabled the entire portable electronics revolution—from the first mobile phones requiring mere grams to Tesla’s Roadster containing 11 kilograms of cobalt. The smartphone era exponentially accelerated demand, with billions of devices each containing 20-30 grams of this now-indispensable element.

Cobalt’s recent history reveals mounting tensions between soaring demand and ethical sourcing. The 2016 revelation of 40,000 children in DRC artisanal mines cast a shadow over the clean energy transition, while prices tripling to $95,000 per ton in 2017 demonstrated market volatility that threatens to destabilize the very industries cobalt enables. Glencore’s 2019 suspension of the Mutanda mine—removing 25% of global supply—exemplified how corporate decisions in boardrooms can ripple through the entire technological ecosystem.

A Complete Chronology Of Cobalt

This comprehensive chronicle traces cobalt’s 4,600-year journey from the ceramic kilns of ancient civilizations to the gigafactories of the 21st century, revealing how one remarkable element has repeatedly reshaped the boundaries of human possibility.

• 2600 BCE – Ancient Egyptians at Amarna and Thebes use cobalt-bearing alum from Western Desert oases to create brilliant blue glazes for pottery and jewelry, establishing cobalt’s earliest known technological application
• 1400 BCE – Chinese artisans in Jingdezhen incorporate imported Persian cobalt oxide (containing 0.5-1% cobalt) into ceramic production, developing distinctive blue and white porcelain techniques
• 700 BCE – Persian craftsmen in Kashan utilize cobalt-bearing minerals from Qamsar mines to produce vibrant blue glass, spreading cobalt glassmaking knowledge throughout the Middle East
• 1450 – Venetian glassmakers on Murano island perfect cobalt blue glass production using Saxon cobalt ore, establishing Venice as a center for cobalt-based luxury goods worth 100 gold ducats per pound
• 1520 – German miners in Schneeberg, Saxony encounter cobalt arsenide ores (skutterudite and smaltite) that release toxic arsenic fumes, naming the troublesome mineral after “kobolds” or evil spirits
• 1735 – Swedish chemist Georg Brandt at Stockholm’s Board of Mines isolates metallic cobalt through reduction of cobalt oxide with carbon, identifying cobalt as a distinct element
• 1780 – Cobalt becomes essential in Meissen and Sèvres porcelain manufacturing, with cobalt oxide imported at 18 thalers per pound, particularly in creating Sèvres blue and other luxury ceramics
• 1802 – French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard develops cobalt blue pigment (cobalt aluminate, CoAl₂O₄) by calcining cobalt oxide with alumina at 1200°C, revolutionizing artistic and industrial coloring
• 1844 – Norwegian Blaafarveværket mining operations begin systematic cobalt extraction at Modum producing 80% of world cobalt supply, establishing the world’s first dedicated cobalt mining facility
• 1864 – Robert Forester Mushet develops cobalt steel alloys in Sheffield, England containing 5-8% cobalt, improving tool durability and cutting capabilities by 300%
• 1901 – Japanese researchers at Tokyo Imperial University discover cobalt’s effectiveness as a hydrogenation catalyst at 150-200°C, opening new industrial applications
• 1907 – American metallurgist Elwood Haynes patents Stellite (Co-Cr-W alloy with 40-65% cobalt), a cobalt-chromium alloy with exceptional wear resistance
• 1910 – German chemists Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch use cobalt catalysts to enable the Fischer-Tropsch process development at 200-350°C, crucial for synthetic fuel production
• 1914 – World War I drives demand for cobalt in high-speed steel containing 5-12% cobalt for munitions production in Allied factories
• 1916 – Deloro Smelting and Refining Company in Ontario begins producing cobalt from silver-cobalt-arsenic ores yielding 3-5% cobalt, establishing North American cobalt industry
• 1920 – Cobalt becomes essential in Alnico permanent magnet production (8-12% cobalt content), enabling electric motor advancements with magnetic strength of 1.4 Tesla
• 1922 – Dorothy Hodgkin and German scientists discover cobalt’s role in vitamin B12 (cobalamin) structure, revealing cobalt’s biological significance
• 1925 – Soviet Union begins cobalt mining at Khovu-Aksy deposit in Kazakhstan, developing strategic mineral reserves of 10,000 tons annually
• 1930 – Austenal Laboratories develops Vitallium cobalt-chromium dental alloys (65% Co, 28% Cr, 6% Mo) revolutionizing prosthetic dentistry
• 1935 – Japanese military incorporates cobalt (15-25%) into tungsten carbide armor-piercing projectiles, enhancing weapon effectiveness against 100mm armor
• 1938 – Shell Oil Company uses cobalt-molybdenum catalysts to improve petroleum refining processes, increasing fuel efficiency by 20%
• 1940 – British Rolls-Royce scientists develop cobalt-based superalloys (X-40 with 25% cobalt) for Whittle jet engine turbines operating at 850°C
• 1942 – Manhattan Project utilizes cobalt in Geiger-Müller radiation detection equipment with cobalt-60 gamma ray sources
• 1945 – Cobalt becomes critical in post-war reconstruction maraging steel production containing 7-12% cobalt for infrastructure rebuilding
• 1950 – Cobalt-60 isotope applications in Theratron cancer radiotherapy units begin at Victoria Hospital in London, Ontario with 2000 Curie sources
• 1951 – United States establishes 42,000-ton strategic cobalt stockpiles at Defense Logistics Agency depots during Korean War
• 1953 – Union Minière du Haut-Katanga in Belgian Congo produces 60% of world cobalt (16,000 tons annually) from Shinkolobwe and Kamoto mines
• 1954 – IBM uses cobalt-based gamma ferric oxide recording tape enabling magnetic data storage revolution with 100 bits per inch density
• 1956 – Soviet physicist Leo Szilard theorizes cobalt-59 bomb concept creating cobalt-60 fallout, though never deployed due to extreme lethality
• 1958 – Phillips Petroleum employs cobalt catalysts at Pasadena plant to enable commercial high-density polyethylene production at 100,000 tons/year
• 1960 – Congo’s independence under Patrice Lumumba triggers first major cobalt supply crisis, prices rise from $1.50 to $3.50 per pound
• 1962 – General Electric develops cobalt-samarium (SmCo₅) magnets achieving record magnetic field strengths of 20 MGOe
• 1965 – Cuban Moa Bay facility begins nickel-cobalt laterite production using ammonia leaching, yielding 2,300 tons cobalt annually
• 1968 – Chevron implements cobalt-molybdenum catalysts in hydrodesulfurization units for producing cleaner fuels with <10ppm sulfur
• 1970 – U.S. Clean Air Act increases cobalt demand for automotive catalytic converters and pollution control catalysts by 40%
• 1972 – Cobalt prices spike from $3 to $25/lb during FLNC rebel attacks in Shaba Province, Zaire affecting Gécamines production
• 1974 – Brazil’s Vale develops cobalt extraction from Niquelândia laterite ores using pressure acid leaching at 250°C and 40 atmospheres
• 1975 – MAR-M 247 and Haynes 188 cobalt-based superalloys (50-60% cobalt) enable gas turbines to operate at 1000°C+, improving efficiency by 15%
• 1978 – Second Shaba conflict causes cobalt prices to increase tenfold from $6 to $65 per pound in six months
• 1980 – Japan’s Sumitomo develops neodymium-iron-boron magnets to reduce strategic vulnerability to cobalt supply disruptions
• 1982 – Mobil Oil demonstrates cobalt-based ZSM-5 zeolite catalysts enabling methanol-to-gasoline conversion at 370°C
• 1984 – China’s Jinchuan Group begins large-scale cobalt refining operations producing 1,000 tons annually from nickel processing
• 1986 – Björk-Shiley cobalt-chromium heart valve implants (L605 alloy) receive FDA approval for 100,000+ patients annually
• 1990 – Sony commercializes lithium-cobalt-oxide (LiCoO₂) batteries with 150 Wh/kg energy density, launching portable electronics revolution
• 1992 – Finland’s Outokumpu Harjavalta plant develops cobalt recovery from copper smelting slags containing 0.3-0.5% cobalt
• 1993 – MIT researchers demonstrate 10-50nm cobalt nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery crossing blood-brain barrier
• 1995 – Internet boom drives cobalt demand for computer hard drives using cobalt-platinum-chromium thin films for 10GB storage
• 1996 – Laurent Kabila’s AFDL rebellion disrupts Gécamines operations producing 50% of global cobalt supply (18,000 tons)
• 1997 – Cobalt prices crash from $30 to $10/lb following Defense Logistics Agency 10,000-ton stockpile releases
• 1998 – Nokia 6110 and similar mobile phones using LiCoO₂ batteries increase cobalt battery demand by 3,000 tons annually
• 2000 – Ballard Power Systems incorporates cobalt in PEM fuel cell catalysts for 75kW hydrogen fuel cell stacks
• 2001 – China’s Huayou Cobalt surpasses Belgium’s Umicore as world’s largest cobalt refiner at 15,000 tons capacity
• 2002 – Axens develops cobalt-molybdenum catalysts enabling biodiesel production via hydroprocessing at 300°C
• 2003 – Boston Scientific’s Taxus cobalt-chromium (L605) drug-eluting stents revolutionize cardiac treatment for 1 million patients
• 2004 – Dell and HP laptop sales containing 20-30g cobalt per battery drive demand to 38,000 tons annually
• 2005 – Rice University demonstrates 2nm cobalt nanotubes storing 7% hydrogen by weight for fuel cell applications
• 2006 – Joseph Kabila’s DRC government renegotiates mining contracts affecting Tenke Fungurume’s 16,000 ton cobalt capacity
• 2007 – Tesla Roadster announces 6,831-cell battery pack using Panasonic NCR18650 cells with LiNiCoAlO₂ chemistry containing 11kg cobalt
• 2008 – Global financial crisis causes cobalt prices to plummet from $52 to $15 per pound in four months
• 2009 – China’s State Reserve Bureau implements 4,000-ton annual strategic cobalt reserve system in Ganzhou
• 2010 – Apple iPhone 4 and Samsung Galaxy S drive smartphone cobalt demand to exceed 25,000 tons annually
• 2011 – Japan’s Fukushima disaster accelerates Sumitomo’s development of NMC battery storage systems using 20% cobalt
• 2012 – Oxford researchers achieve 12% efficiency in cobalt-based perovskite (LaCoO₃) solar cells
• 2013 – Indonesia’s ore export ban affects PT Vale’s 3,800 ton annual cobalt production from Sorowako facility
• 2014 – Tesla Gigafactory Nevada announcement projects 7,000 tons annual cobalt demand for Model 3 production
• 2015 – COP21 Paris Climate Agreement’s 2°C target accelerates EV adoption requiring 75,000 tons cobalt by 2025
• 2016 – Amnesty International documents 40,000 children in DRC artisanal cobalt mining producing 20% of supply
• 2017 – Cobalt prices triple from $32,500 to $95,000/ton as China’s BYD and CATL expand battery production
• 2018 – Volkswagen’s failed tender for 130,000 tons of cobalt over 10 years highlights supply constraints
• 2019 – Glencore suspends Mutanda mine removing 27,000 tons (25% of global supply) from cobalt market
• 2020 – COVID-19 lockdowns reduce DRC’s cobalt exports by 8,000 tons affecting Kolwezi mining operations
• 2021 – General Motors’ Ultium battery platform using NCMA chemistry commits to 60% cobalt reduction per kWh
• 2022 – Norilsk Nickel’s 5,500 ton cobalt production affected by sanctions following Russia-Ukraine conflict
• 2023 – Indonesia’s Huayue facility begins producing 7,800 tons cobalt annually from HPAL processing of laterite ores
• 2024 – Redwood Materials achieves 95% cobalt recovery from EV batteries at Nevada facility processing 20,000 tons annually
• 2025 – The Metals Company with Allseas Group, Belgium’s GSR, and Japan’s DORD conduct deep-sea cobalt nodule mining trials in Clarion-Clipperton Zone targeting 3 million tons of polymetallic nodules

Final Thoughts

Cobalt’s journey through history reveals fundamental truths about technological progress: how materials once considered curiosities become indispensable, how resource geography shapes global power structures, and how scientific understanding transforms raw elements into catalysts for change. Without a doubt, cobalt stands as both a testament to human ingenuity and a reminder of our dependence on Earth’s finite resources.

Thanks for reading!