Ruthenium represents a perfect storm of criticality: extreme geographic concentration in politically and economically volatile regions, complete dependence on byproduct recovery, irreplaceable industrial applications, no viable substitutes, limited recycling potential, and a tiny market size that amplifies any supply disruption. With emerging technologies increasingly dependent on ruthenium and no prospect for diversifying supply sources, it exemplifies why certain materials become strategic bottlenecks in the modern economy.

Check out the rest of the Platinum Group Metals (PGMs) here: ‘What Are The Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)? Critical Raw Materials’

Why Is Ruthenium A Critical Raw Material?

Ruthenium has emerged as a critical raw material due to an exceptional combination of factors: extreme supply concentration, irreplaceable industrial applications, severe price volatility, and growing strategic importance for advanced technologies.

Extreme Geographic Supply Concentration

Ruthenium production is extraordinarily concentrated, creating severe supply chain vulnerabilities. South Africa dominates global production, accounting for 90-92% of supply (27,000-31,000 kg annually), while Russia contributes most remaining supply with only 1,000-1,300 kg/year. The concentration is even more stark when considering that 97% of the world’s PGE resources are contained in just 14 intrusions, with the Bushveld Complex alone holding 72% of global resources. Specific reserves include 940 metric tons in the Bushveld Complex’s UG2 Chromitite and 250 metric tons in the Merensky Reef, with Zimbabwe’s Great Dyke containing 260 metric tons. Critically, ruthenium exhibits 100% byproduct dependency—it cannot be mined independently and is only recovered during platinum and palladium extraction. This leaves countries like the U.S. importing 100% of their ruthenium needs, with approximately 90% import reliance for all platinum group metals.

Unique Physical Properties & Industrial Applications

Ruthenium’s irreplaceable role stems from its exceptional characteristics and diverse applications. Electronics manufacturing consumes 62% of global demand, primarily for hard disk drives where ruthenium thin films enable higher data storage densities. The chemical industry uses 29% total, with 16% for chlorine and sodium hydroxide production and 13% for other applications including ammonia synthesis catalysts. Emerging applications in hydrogen production and fuel cell technologies, particularly iridium-ruthenium oxide coatings for electrolyzers, are expected to drive future demand. The metal’s unique properties include extreme hardness, chemical inertness, exceptional catalytic activity, and resistance to wear and tarnishing, with no viable substitutes existing without significant performance losses. This criticality is underscored by ruthenium’s extreme natural scarcity—Earth’s upper crust contains only 0.0005 ppm platinum, and ruthenium is even rarer.

Severe Price Volatility & Market Dynamics

The ruthenium market exhibits extreme instability that reflects its critical material status. Prices increased 136% from $244.41/oz in 2018 to $576.12/oz in 2021, reaching a record high of $800/oz in June 2021. Even within 2024 alone, prices ranged from $400-650/oz. Historical data shows multiple sharp spikes exceeding $500/unit during supply constraints. The small market size of approximately 30,000 kg annually means minor disruptions cause dramatic price swings, compounded by the absence of significant above-ground stocks to buffer supply disruptions. This volatility creates significant challenges for industrial users who require stable supplies for manufacturing processes.

Production Vulnerabilities & Technical Challenges

Multiple factors threaten stable ruthenium supply, as demonstrated by recent disruptions. The 2020-2021 period saw COVID-19 lockdowns, power shortages, and labor disputes in South Africa severely impact global availability, while 2021 Russian flooding at Nornickel operations further strained supply. Infrastructure limitations pose ongoing risks, exemplified by the January 2008 power crisis that shut down South African mining for five days. Deep mining challenges are increasingly severe, with Bushveld operations exceeding 2 km depth and encountering 70°C rock temperatures requiring sophisticated refrigeration. The industry considers 75°C the maximum temperature for viable mining with current technology. Limited power and water availability in southern Africa further constrains production. Additionally, ruthenium’s geochemical complexity adds extraction challenges—at 1,000°C, ruthenium partitions differently than other PGEs into monosulfide solid solution, requiring specialized extraction techniques.

Strategic Importance & Future Outlook

Ruthenium’s criticality extends well beyond current applications into strategic considerations for advanced economies. The EU has included it in its list of 14 critical raw materials due to supply vulnerabilities, while assessments by the British Geological Survey and European Commission confirm its strategic importance. Global net PGE demand was approximately 460 metric tons in 2012 and continues growing, driven particularly by green technology applications essential for the hydrogen economy and next-generation data storage. Limited recycling potential persists, as recovery from end-of-life products remains technically challenging and economically marginal compared to other PGMs. The lack of significant reserves outside the Bushveld Complex and Russian deposits, combined with no viable recycling infrastructure for many ruthenium applications, creates persistent supply chain vulnerability for advanced manufacturing economies.

Economic Impact

The combination of factors creates significant economic implications across global supply chains. The inflexible supply base meeting variable industrial demand means production disruptions can halt manufacturing lines in electronics and chemical industries, with ripple effects throughout global supply chains. Historical disruptions demonstrate this impact: the Soviet Union dissolution in 1991, the Impala strike in 1986, and miners’ strikes in 2011-2012 all caused severe market impacts. The inability to quickly increase production in response to demand or to develop alternative sources directly impacts technological advancement and industrial competitiveness. With no prospect for diversifying supply sources and emerging technologies increasingly dependent on ruthenium, the metal represents a persistent economic vulnerability where supply security is paramount for maintaining industrial operations.

20 Interesting Facts About Ruthenium

1. Atomic Properties: Ruthenium is one of six platinum-group metals (PGMs) with similar atomic structures and chemistries, exhibiting high melting temperature and exceptional resistance to chemical corrosion and oxidation.
2. Discovery: Ruthenium was discovered and identified as a new element in 1807, making it the last of the platinum-group metals to be discovered.
3. Natural Occurrence: Ruthenium occurs in Earth’s crust at extremely low concentrations, typically found in ores containing only 5-15 parts per million (ppm) of total PGMs, with ruthenium being a minor fraction of this.
4. Mineral Forms: Ruthenium occurs in more than 100 different minerals as compounds with other transition metals (copper, iron, mercury, nickel, silver), post-transition metals (bismuth, lead, tin), metalloids (antimony, arsenic, tellurium), and nonmetals (selenium and sulfur).
5. Catalytic Properties: Ruthenium serves as an essential catalyst in the Haber-Bosch process for ammonia synthesis, fundamental to global fertilizer production.
6. Electronic Applications: In hard disk drives, ruthenium enables higher data storage densities through its use in thin film layers, accounting for 62% of global ruthenium demand.
7. Chemical Production: Ruthenium catalysts are critical for chlorine and sodium hydroxide production, representing 16% of global consumption.
8. Electrochemical Function: Ruthenium oxide coatings, often combined with iridium, are used for electrochemical chlorination in ship ballast water treatment systems.
9. Heat-Resistant Properties: Ruthenium’s exceptional thermal stability made it valuable in heat-assisted magnetic recording technology for data storage.
10. Alloy Enhancement: When alloyed with other platinum-group metals, ruthenium creates exceptionally hard and durable materials ideal for industrial crucibles used in high-temperature chemical manufacturing.
11. Geological Formation: Ruthenium concentrates in magmatic ore deposits formed during cooling and crystallization of mafic to ultramafic magmas, particularly in layered intrusions like the Bushveld Complex.
12. Extraction Complexity: Ruthenium must be extracted through complex metallurgical processes involving flotation, smelting, and refining, as it cannot be mined independently.
13. Crystal Growth Applications: Ruthenium is used in the production of high-purity synthetic crystals, including sapphire crystals for LED manufacturing.
14. Chemical Inertness: Ruthenium’s chemical inertness makes it valuable for applications requiring resistance to corrosion in aggressive chemical environments.
15. Hydrogen Economy: Emerging applications include use in proton-exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers for green hydrogen production, where ruthenium-iridium catalysts enable water splitting.
16. Melting Point: Ruthenium possesses one of the highest melting points among the platinum-group metals, contributing to its use in high-temperature applications.
17. Electrical Properties: Ruthenium exhibits excellent electrical conductivity, making it useful in electrical contacts and thick-film resistors.
18. Size Scale: Platinum-group minerals containing ruthenium typically range from less than one micron to a few hundred microns in diameter, requiring sophisticated analytical techniques for detection.
19. Recovery Challenges: Unlike palladium and platinum, ruthenium recovery from recycled materials remains technically challenging due to its dispersion in end-use products and complex chemistry.
20. Isotope Applications: Although not detailed in the documents, ruthenium compounds are noted for specialized applications in electronics and chemical industries that leverage its unique electronic configuration and bonding characteristics.

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