In the pantheon of human achievements, few discoveries rival the transformative power of bronze. This remarkable alloy—born from the marriage of copper and tin—didn’t merely change how our ancestors made tools and weapons; it fundamentally altered the trajectory of human civilization. When ancient metallurgists first combined these metals around 3500 BCE, they unknowingly set in motion a cascade of innovations that would ripple through millennia, touching every aspect of human life from agriculture to warfare, from art to industry.

The story of bronze is, in many ways, the story of humanity itself. It chronicles our relentless pursuit of better materials, our expanding trade networks that spanned continents in search of precious tin, and our artistic ambitions that found expression in everything from delicate ornaments to monumental sculptures. Bronze enabled the construction of the first great cities, facilitated the rise and fall of empires, and provided the medium through which countless cultures expressed their highest aspirations and deepest beliefs.

What makes bronze particularly fascinating is its refusal to become obsolete. Unlike many ancient technologies that have been relegated to museums, bronze has continuously reinvented itself, finding new applications in each era. From the ritual vessels of Shang Dynasty China to the submarine cables spanning our oceans, from medieval church bells to modern wind turbines, bronze has proven itself indispensable across five millennia of human progress. This comprehensive history traces that remarkable journey, exploring how a discovery made in ancient Mesopotamia continues to shape our world today.

A Complete History Of Bronze: From The Ancient Era To Today

Bronze has shaped human civilization for over 5,000 years, evolving from a revolutionary discovery in ancient Mesopotamia to an indispensable material in modern technology. Beginning around 3500 BCE when Sumerian craftsmen first alloyed copper with tin, bronze transformed warfare, agriculture, and art throughout the ancient world. The Bronze Age saw the rise of the first cities, the development of writing systems, and the establishment of vast trade networks stretching from the Mediterranean to China. Civilizations from Egypt to the Indus Valley, from Mycenaean Greece to Shang Dynasty China, created sophisticated bronze weapons, tools, and ceremonial objects that demonstrated both technical mastery and artistic achievement.

During the Middle Ages (500-1500 CE), bronze production evolved from scattered workshops into organized industries, with specialized guilds producing everything from church bells to astronomical instruments. The period witnessed significant innovations like the Mosan style of bronze working, the development of sophisticated Islamic metalwork, and the crucial transition of bronze-casting technology from peaceful uses to military artillery. The Early Modern Era (1500-1800) marked bronze’s transformation through the refinement of casting techniques and its globalization via colonial expansion, with European foundries perfecting cannon production while distinct regional traditions flourished from Benin’s legendary bronze heads to Japanese temple bells.

The Industrial Revolution and modern era brought bronze into the age of scientific metallurgy, with the development of specialized alloys like phosphor bronze, aluminum bronze, and beryllium bronze, each engineered for specific applications. From Napoleon’s bronze cannons to modern submarine cables, from steam engine bearings to wind turbine components, bronze has remained essential to technological progress. Today, bronze continues to serve critical roles in electronics, marine engineering, renewable energy, and countless industrial applications, proving that this ancient alloy remains as relevant in the digital age as it was at the dawn of civilization.

The history of bronze can be divided into four distinct phases:

1. Bronze In The Ancient Era (3000 BCE – 500 CE)
2. Bronze In The Middle Ages (500 – 1500)
3. Bronze In The Early-Modern Era (1500-1800)
4. Bronze In The Modern Era (1800 – Present Day)

1. Bronze In The Ancient Era (3000 BCE – 500 CE)

The Bronze Age represents one of humanity’s most transformative periods, spanning from approximately 3300 BCE to 1200 BCE in most regions, though bronze continued to play a vital role in many civilizations well into the Common Era. This epoch witnessed the rise of the world’s first cities, the development of writing systems, the establishment of long-distance trade networks, and the emergence of complex state societies. Bronze metallurgy, requiring sophisticated knowledge of alloying copper with tin in precise proportions, became the catalyst for technological advancement and cultural exchange across the ancient world. From the early experiments with arsenical copper in Anatolia to the mass production of bronze artifacts in the workshops of Rome, this timeline chronicles the pivotal moments when bronze shaped the destiny of ancient civilizations.

Chronology

• 3500 BCE – Bronze metallurgy began in Mesopotamia as Sumerian craftsmen developed techniques for alloying copper with tin, marking the beginning of the Bronze Age in the Near East [1, 2, 3]
• 3300 BCE – The Indus Valley Civilization began using bronze, with inhabitants of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro developing new techniques in metallurgy and producing copper, bronze, lead, and tin; Archaeological evidence suggests bronze technology emerged in ancient Sumer, making them possibly the first civilization to deliberately add tin to copper to create bronze [4, 5, 6]
• 3200 BCE – The Aegean Bronze Age began when civilizations first established a far-ranging trade network that imported tin and charcoal to Cyprus, where copper was mined and alloyed with tin to produce bronze; Early Bronze Age metallurgy emerged on Thasos in the north Aegean, with evidence of arsenical copper production [4, 7]
• 3000 BCE – Bronze Age began in India as the Indus Valley Civilization entered its mature phase, with sophisticated metallurgical techniques; Sumerians in Mesopotamia were using bronze extensively, pioneering the use of this alloy for tools and weapons [8, 4, 2]
• 2600 BCE – The Royal Tombs of Ur contained numerous bronze artifacts including weapons, tools, and ornaments, demonstrating the importance of bronze in Mesopotamian society; Early Minoan period on Crete saw the beginning of bronze metallurgy in the Aegean region [9, 7]
• 2500 BCE – Bronze casting techniques were well-established in Mesopotamia, with the “earliest definite date usually assigned to true bronze casting”; The Dancing Girl* bronze sculpture was created in the Indus Valley using the lost wax casting technique, demonstrating advanced metallurgical skills; Luristan bronzes production possibly began in western Iran, though most canonical pieces date from 1000-650 BCE; Bronze technology spread throughout the Aegean, with Minoan civilization on Crete developing sophisticated metalworking techniques [10, 11, 4, 4] *see The Dancing Girl bronze sculpture at the end of this article
• 2100 BCE – Mesopotamian agricultural productivity increased dramatically with bronze tools, with texts recording yield to seed ratios of 30:1 and even 50:1 [3]
• 2040 BCE – Egypt’s Middle Kingdom began with bronze weapons becoming more widespread and the military becoming more professional [12, 13]
• 2000 BCE – Bronze ritual vessels production began in China, though the Shang dynasty’s bronze age would not fully develop until 1600 BCE; The Minoan civilization on Crete entered its Middle Bronze Age phase, developing unique art and architecture; Chinese Bronze Age began according to the United States National Gallery of Art definition, starting with the Erlitou culture [14, 15, 4]
• 1700 BCE – Bronze technology became widespread in Greece, with the Mycenaean civilization developing sophisticated bronze weapons and armor [4]
• 1600 BCE – The Shang Dynasty in China began, marking the height of Chinese bronze production with elaborate ritual vessels; Mycenaean civilization flourished in Greece, producing advanced bronze armor including the famous Dendra panoply; Chinese bronze workers developed piece-mold casting techniques, different from the lost-wax method used elsewhere [4, 16, 17, 4, 18, 6]
• 1550 BCE – Egypt’s New Kingdom saw the widespread adoption of bronze weapons including the khopesh sword, composite bows, and scale armor [13]
• 1500 BCE – Bronze swords appeared in northern Europe, with specimens found in Scandinavia showing characteristic spiral patterns [4]
• 1457 BCE – The Battle of Megiddo demonstrated the effectiveness of Egyptian bronze weapons and chariots in warfare [13]
• 1450 BCE – The Dendra Armor* was created in Mycenaean Greece, consisting of a complete bronze panoply weighing approximately 60 pounds [17, 19, 4] *an example of the Dendra Armor is set as the feature image of this article
• 1300 BCE – Luristan bronzes production intensified in western Iran, creating distinctive horse fittings, weapons, and ceremonial objects [4]
• 1250 BCE – Late Bronze Age collapse began affecting Mediterranean civilizations, disrupting bronze trade networks [20]
• 1200 BCE – The Bronze Age ended abruptly in the Mediterranean with the collapse of several prominent civilizations; Sea Peoples attacked coastal cities across the Mediterranean, contributing to the Bronze Age collapse [6, 20]
• 1046 BCE – The Zhou Dynasty began in China, continuing and refining bronze production with new vessel types and decorative styles [21, 22]
• 1000 BCE – Iron began to replace bronze in many regions, though bronze continued to be used for specific purposes; Canonical Luristan bronzes were produced in western Iran, featuring distinctive openwork designs and animal motifs [4, 23]
• 900 BCE – Etruscan civilization in Italy developed sophisticated bronze-working techniques, producing elaborate sculptures and decorative objects [24]
• 825 BCE – Bronze script rubbing from China documented the work of Song, a warehouse supervisor who approved bronze vessels [22]
• 771 BCE – Chinese Bronze Age ended according to some definitions with the fall of the Western Zhou [4]
• 753 BCE – Rome was founded, adopting bronze technology from the Etruscans who had mastered sophisticated casting techniques [25, 26]
• 750 BCE – Bronze production in Luristan reached its peak with elaborate horse trappings and ceremonial objects [4]
• 650 BCE – Luristan bronze production declined as the region came under increasing outside influence [4]
• 600 BCE – Bronze Age sword production ended in Europe with the transition to iron weapons, except in Greece where development continued [4]
• 509 BCE – The Roman Republic was established after expelling Etruscan kings, inheriting their bronze-working traditions [27]
• 500 BCE – Bronze continued to be used throughout the Mediterranean for coins, statuary, and decorative objects despite the dominance of iron [4]
• 264 BCE – Romans looted over 2,000 bronze statues from the Etruscan city of Volsinii, melting them down for coinage [24]
• 100 BCE – Roman bronze production reached industrial scale with mass production of fibulae, coins, and standardized military equipment [4]
• 100 CE – Bronze remained important in the Roman Empire for artistic works, coinage, and specialized applications where its properties were superior to iron [4]
• 500 CE – Bronze technology continued in various forms across the ancient world, particularly for artistic and ceremonial purposes [4]

2. Bronze In The Middle Ages (500 – 1500)

The history of bronze during the Middle Ages spans a millennium of technological advancement, artistic innovation, and cultural transformation. From the early medieval revival of bronze casting under Charlemagne to the sophisticated guild systems of the late Middle Ages, bronze production evolved from scattered workshops into organized industries that supplied everything from church bells to household vessels. This period witnessed the development of new casting techniques, the establishment of major production centers from the Meuse Valley to Venice, and the creation of masterworks that continue to inspire today. The medieval bronze industry reflects broader patterns of European history: the rise of urban centers, the power of the Church, the growth of international trade, and the transmission of knowledge across cultural boundaries.

Chronology

• 562 – According to the Nihon Shoki, Ōtomo no Satehiko brought three bronze bells back to Japan from Goguryeo as spoils of war, marking the introduction of bronze bell technology to Japan from the Korean Peninsula [1]
• 600 – The Dong Son bronze drum tradition, which had flourished since 600 BCE in Vietnam, ended under Chinese pressure. These drums had spread throughout Southeast Asia serving as prestige objects and rain-making instruments. The earliest Japanese bronze temple bells (bonshō) date to this period, derived from Chinese designs but developing distinctive Japanese characteristics [2, 1]
• 618 – The Tang Dynasty established sophisticated bronze coin production. The Kaiyuan Tongbao bronze coins became the standard currency across East Asia for centuries [3]
• 621 – Emperor Gaozu of Tang issued the Kaiyuan Tongbao bronze coin, which became the model for East Asian coinage for over 1,000 years [4]
• 688 – Ibn Yazid signed a bronze ewer in Iraq, one of the earliest signed Islamic bronze works, marking the beginning of individual artisans establishing their reputations [5]
• 698 – The oldest dated Japanese bronze temple bell was cast in Kyoto for a Buddhist temple [6]
• 700 – Bronze gongs began appearing in Java and Southeast Asian temples, eventually becoming integral to gamelan orchestras [7]
• 796 – An Iranian bronze aquamanile in the form of an eagle was created, the earliest dated Islamic bronze metalwork object showing sophisticated lost-wax casting [8]
• 800 – Charlemagne commissioned monumental bronze portals for the Palatine Chapel in Aachen, marking the revival of large-scale bronze casting in Europe after centuries of decline [9]
• 918 – The Goryeo dynasty was established in Korea, beginning sophisticated production of bronze Buddhist ritual implements and temple bells [10]
• 965 – The earliest documented bronze eagle lectern was made in Europe, representing liturgical furniture that demonstrated religious symbolism (the eagle as St. John) and technical mastery [11]
• 1000 – Bronze doors were cast for Mainz Cathedral using advanced lost-wax techniques. High-tin bronze vessels began production in Khurasan, eastern Iran, representing a distinct Islamic metallurgical tradition. Bronze gongs and metallophones became integral to Southeast Asian gamelan orchestras, with Java developing the bonang (horizontal gong sets) [9, 12, 13]
• 1015 – Bishop Bernward commissioned the bronze doors for Hildesheim Cathedral, cast as single pieces using lost-wax method – a technical achievement unmatched since antiquity [14]
• 1028-1086 – Islamic Spain became a major center for bronze astrolabe production, with workshops in Toledo, Valencia, Saragossa, and Guadalajara producing sophisticated astronomical instruments essential for navigation, timekeeping, and religious observance [12]
• 1088 – Su Song constructed a bronze astronomical clock-tower in China, 35 feet tall with bronze mechanical components, representing the pinnacle of medieval timekeeping technology [15]
• 1100 – Polychrome enamel work on bronze reached its peak in the Islamic world, combining metallurgy with decorative arts [16]
• 1107 – Renier de Huy created the bronze baptismal font for Notre Dame aux Fonts in Liège, supported by twelve bronze oxen, establishing the Mosan style [17]
• 1111 – Bohemond I of Antioch commissioned a bronze door at Canosa [18]
• 1119 – Oderisius of Benevento cast bronze doors for Troia Cathedral [18]
• 1120 – The earliest bronze aquamanile from Helmarshausen was created, beginning Germany’s dominance in producing elaborate pouring vessels [19]
• 1127 – Oderisius of Benevento cast a second set of bronze doors for Troia Cathedral [18]
• 1150 – Polychrome enamel work on bronze peaked in the Islamic world, as seen on a bronze plate in Innsbruck [16]
• 1166 – Duke Henry the Lion commissioned the Braunschweig bronze lion, nearly two meters high, the largest hollow-cast bronze sculpture since antiquity [20]
• 1200 – Bronze aquamanilia production peaked in northern Germany between 1200 and 1350. Bronze Hanseatic bowls with engraved decorations were mass-produced for trade throughout the Baltic region [20, 21]
• 1206 – An Islamic bronze aquamanile depicting a zebu and calf was created in Khorasan with movable bronze parts, showing mechanical sophistication [8]
• 1219 – The Danish king brought bronze Hanseatic bowls to Estonia as diplomatic gifts, demonstrating bronze objects’ role in international relations [22]
• 1220 – A bronze eagle lectern was cast in Hildesheim featuring an eagle grasping a dragon with complex biblical iconography [23]
• 1239 – The great bronze bell at Todaiji Temple in Nara, Japan was recast, weighing 35 tons [6]
• 1240 – Medieval bronze belt accessories were manufactured in Salzburg using lost-wax casting for mass production [24]
• 1250 – Bronze crucifixes showing Christ as suffering figure became common in Gothic art, reflecting theological shifts [25]
• 1260 – Specialized bronze-working guilds existed among Paris’s 101 trades, showing the professionalization of bronze casting [26]
• 1276 – A compartmented mercury clock with bronze components was described in Spanish translations of Arabic works [27]
• 1279 – The Mongol Yuan dynasty began rule in China, continuing Tang and Song bronze traditions while facilitating technology transfer across their empire. While Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire and initiated the conquests that eventually led to the Yuan Dynasty, it was his grandson, Kublai Khan, who officially established the Yuan Dynasty in China. Genghis Khan did not rule over a unified China, but rather a vast empire that included parts of China. Kublai Khan, after winning a civil war and conquering the Song Dynasty, declared the Yuan Dynasty and made his capital in present-day Beijing [28]
• 1300 – Bronze lion aquamanilia dominated European production, with standardized forms enabling mass production. Abu Bakr ibn ‘Ali ibn Malikzad al-Tabrizi owned an octagonal bronze mortar with silver inlay [20, 29]
• 1361 – John, brazier of Cornhill, sold a bronze gun to the Tower of London, marking the crucial transition of bronze casting technology from peaceful uses to military artillery [30]
• 1372 – Jean Joses of Dinant made the earliest surviving dated bronze eagle lectern for Tongeren, establishing Dinant as a major bronze-working center [9]
• 1373 – Martin and Georg von Klausenberg cast a bronze equestrian statue of St. George for Prague, reviving monumental bronze sculpture [18]
• 1392 – The Joseon dynasty began in Korea, continuing sophisticated bronze casting traditions [31]
• 1400 – Bronze crotal bells began to be cast in Europe as single pieces with internal balls, showing advanced hollow-casting techniques. Southeast Asian bronze drum production saw revival in Myanmar, with Karenni artisans creating smaller drums [32, 2]
• 1415-1420 – Bronze astrolabe production flourished in Paris workshops, with makers like Jean Fusoris creating instruments combining scientific precision with artistic beauty [33]
• 1430 – The Westminster Bell was cast in bronze, weighing about 34 cwt [34]
• 1453 – Orban used bronze-casting skills developed for bells to create massive artillery for the Ottoman siege of Constantinople [35]
• 1470 – Production of brass eagle lecterns began in England, with 46 examples surviving from this tradition [36]
• 1490 – China’s first movable type printing using bronze characters was established by Hua Sui [28]
• 1500 – Bronze eagle lecterns featured complex iconography including biblical figures [13]

3. Bronze In The Early-Modern Era (1500-1800)

The Early Modern Era marked a transformative period in bronze working, characterized by the refinement of casting techniques, the globalization of bronze technology through colonial expansion, and the flourishing of distinct regional traditions. From European artillery foundries to Asian temple workshops, from African royal courts to American colonial enterprises, bronze remained central to military might, religious expression, and artistic achievement throughout these three centuries.

Chronology

• 1500 – European bronze cannons reach their “classic form” with longer, lighter, more accurate designs that would remain relatively unchanged until the 1750s; Benvenuto Cellini born in Florence, who would become a renowned bronze sculptor and goldsmith of the Renaissance [1, 2]
• 1507 – The Vischer family completes work on the bronze Shrine of Saint Sebaldus in Nuremberg, demonstrating Northern European mastery of bronze casting [3]
• 1510 – Spanish conquistadors begin colonizing the Caribbean, bringing European bronze-working technology to the Americas [4]
• 1515 – Ottoman forces use bronze cannons in military campaigns as the empire expands [5]
• 1533 – Ottoman bronze cannon created in Algiers decorated with fleurs-de-lis and monster head, later inscribed for Amir Muhammad Hasan in 1589 [6]
• 1540 – Cellini creates his famous golden saltcellar for Cardinal Ippolito d’Este, demonstrating mastery of bronze and precious metal working [2]
• 1543 – William Levett, English parson of Buxted, with Ralf Hogge casts first iron cannons in England, challenging bronze’s dominance in artillery [1]
• 1545 – Cellini begins work on his bronze statue Perseus with the Head of Medusa, completed in 1554 [2]
• 1550 – Oba Esigie’s reign in Benin marks one of two “Golden Ages” of Benin bronze workmanship with production of commemorative heads and plaques [7] *the article feature image is a collection of Benin bronze heads
• 1556 – Mughal emperor Akbar begins reign, under which Indian metallurgy produces excellent bronze cannons [8]
• 1562 – Tophane foundry in Istanbul casts 1012 bronze guns weighing 481 tons total in a single year [5]
• 1570 – Lost-wax bronze casting technique well-established in Egypt and throughout Mediterranean world [9]
• 1580 – Bronze cannons become standard armament for expanding European naval fleets [1]
• 1589 – Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman invents seamless celestial globe cast in bronze using lost-wax method in Kashmir [8]
• 1590 – Ottoman bronze cannon with Arabic inscriptions cast for Amir Muhammad Hasan in Algiers [6]
• 1600 – Nordic Bronze Age casting techniques continue in Scandinavian workshops despite transition to Iron Age; Portuguese traders bring European bronze-casting knowledge to Japan through Nagasaki [10, 11]
• 1610 – Toyotomi Hideyori commissions large bronze temple bell for Hōkō-ji temple reconstruction [11]
• 1625 – Segovia Cathedral construction begins in Spain, featuring elaborate bronze elements [12]
• 1650 – European artillery founders achieve mastery in casting bronze cannons with improved boring techniques [1]
• 1676 – Peter the Great commissions Falconet’s colossal 16-ton bronze equestrian statue, cast in single pour [9] * see image at the end of the article
• 1716 – Albert Borgard’s artillery designs accepted by British Board of Ordnance, standardizing bronze cannon specifications [15]
• 1720 – Japanese temple bell casters continue traditional bonshō production using methods unchanged since Nara period [11]
• 1722 – Colonel John Armstrong redesigns British bronze cannon to create lighter artillery pieces [15]
• 1725 – Oba Akenzua I bronze rattle staff created in Benin, showing continued mastery of lost-wax technique [16]
• 1730 – European bell foundries centralize production as railways enable easier transportation of large bronze bells [17]
• 1735 – Russia attempts to cast massive Tsar Bell but 11.5-ton slab cracks off during 1737 fire; Eresoyen’s reign marks second “Golden Age” of Benin bronze workmanship lasting until 1750 [7, 17] * the article feature image is a collection of Benin bronze heads
• 1740 – Whitechapel Bell Foundry and John Taylor & Co dominate English bronze bell production [17]
• 1747 – Spanish bronze cannon cast at Tōji using “old bronze” (Bronzes Viexos) from melted captured artillery pieces, demonstrating recycling of scarce bronze resources [19]
• 1750 – European foundries develop revolutionary ability to cast bronze cannon barrels as solid blanks then bore them out, improving accuracy and quality [1]
• 1760 – Lacquered bronze work from Pátzcuaro, Mexico demonstrates colonial Mexican artistic innovation [20]
• 1769 – Spanish missions in California commission bronze church bells from local and imported founders for new settlements [21]
• 1775 – American Revolutionary forces use bronze cannons with effective range of 1200-1500 yards [22]
• 1780 – Mysorean army develops metal-cylinder rockets with bronze components for use against British [8]
• 1795 – Late Ming dynasty bronze ritual vessels demonstrate continuity of Chinese casting traditions [13]
• 1800 – Industrial Revolution begins transforming traditional bronze casting into mechanized production [24]

4. Bronze In The Modern Era (1800 – Present Day)

The modern history of bronze represents a remarkable transformation from traditional applications in artillery and bells to sophisticated alloys essential for industrial bearings, marine propellers, electrical components, and high-tech applications. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, metallurgists developed specialized bronze formulations including phosphor bronze, aluminum bronze, silicon bronze, and beryllium bronze, each engineered to meet specific industrial challenges. This chronology traces bronze’s evolution from the age of steam through the digital revolution, documenting how this ancient alloy has remained indispensable to technological progress.

Chronology

• 1794 – Philip Vaughan receives first patent for ball bearings with bronze components, revolutionizing mechanical motion and laying groundwork for Industrial Revolution machinery [1, 2, 3, 4]
• 1800 – Napoleon Bonaparte increases proportion of bronze 12-pounder cannons, his “belles filles” (beautiful daughters), in French artillery reserves [5, 6]
• 1803 – French artillery replaces 4-pounder bronze cannons with 6-pounders for improved striking power using captured Austrian and Prussian pieces [7]
• 1807 – British Royal Navy struggles with bronze cannon procurement during Napoleonic Wars as demand outstrips supply; Ottoman “Dardanelles Gun” (cast 1464 by Munir Ali, used at 1453 siege of Constantinople) fired at British fleet causing 28 casualties [8, 9, 10]
• 1813 – Napoleon fields 600 bronze artillery pieces at Battle of Leipzig, achieving ratio of three guns per 1,000 soldiers [12]
• 1816 – Borgard system of bronze cannon design remains standard in British military, with pieces classified by weight of shot fired; British arsenals continue producing bronze cannons despite experiments with iron, as bronze proves more reliable for naval warfare [11, 13]
• 1822 – George Marshall publishes “Marshall’s Practical Marine Gunnery” emphasizing accuracy of bronze naval cannons over weight of broadside [8]
• 1826 – Andrew Meneely establishes Meneely Bell Foundry in West Troy, New York, beginning American tradition of bronze bell casting [14]
• 1830s – Bronze bearings become essential components in railway locomotives and industrial machinery during railroad expansion [2, 15]
• 1840s – Development of bronze propellers begins as steamships require more efficient propulsion than paddle wheels [16]
• 1850 – First submarine telegraph cable laid across English Channel uses copper conductors with bronze components in terminal equipment [17, 18]
• 1856 – McShane Bell Foundry established in Baltimore, becoming major American bronze bell manufacturer [19]
• 1857 – U.S. Army adopts Model 1857 Napoleon bronze field gun weighing 1,227 pounds, 500 pounds lighter than previous model [20]
• 1858 – First transatlantic telegraph cable completed using bronze components in terminal equipment and connections [17, 21, 22]
• 1860s – American Civil War sees extensive use of bronze Napoleon 12-pounder field guns proving effective at Gettysburg [8, 20]
• 1865 – British Admiralty adopts Armstrong’s bronze Rifled Muzzle Loader (RML) design for naval artillery [23]
• 1866 – Second successful transatlantic cable laid with improved bronze fittings and terminal equipment [17, 22]
• 1867 – Sultan Abdul Aziz gifts Queen Victoria the bronze “Dardanelles Gun” (cast 1464 by Munir Ali, used at 1453 siege of Constantinople) weighing 17 tons [9, 10]
• 1869 – Jules Suriray patents radial ball bearings with bronze components for bicycle applications [4]
• 1870 – Georges Montefiore-Levi and Karl Künzel invent phosphor bronze in Vienna, improving corrosion resistance and casting quality for electrical contacts [24, 25, 26]
• 1870s – Steel bell production attempted in England, but abandoned as bronze proves superior for acoustic properties [27]
• 1880 – Fourth transatlantic cable installed with bronze terminal equipment at Heart’s Content station [17]
• 1882 – McShane Bell Company casts bronze church bell still ringing today, demonstrating bronze’s durability [19]
• 1890s – Bronze adopted widely for marine propellers as ships grow larger and faster [28, 29]
• 1900s – Aluminum bronze alloys developed containing 9-14% aluminum for superior strength and corrosion resistance [30, 31]
• 1907 – Sven Wingquist invents self-aligning ball bearings using bronze components, revolutionizing bearing design [1]
• 1910s – Nickel aluminum bronze developed for marine applications with enhanced seawater resistance [32, 33]
• 1913 – Pierre Durville advances aluminum bronze casting with tilting ladle method, solving oxide inclusion problems [31]
• 1917 – American Bearing Manufacturers Association formed to coordinate bronze bearing production for World War I [1, 2]
• 1920s – Silicon bronze developed for welding applications, containing 3% silicon [34, 35, 36, 37]
• 1930s – Beryllium bronze invented containing 0.5-3% beryllium for springs and electrical contacts in aviation instruments [38, 39, 40]
• 1939 – Italy introduces bronzital coins (92% copper, 6% aluminum, 2% nickel) for 5 and 10 centesimi [30]
• 1940s – World War II drives massive demand for bronze bearings; single B-17 bomber requires over 1,000 bronze bearings [41, 42]
• 1944 – Allied bombing of Schweinfurt targets Nazi Germany’s bronze bearing production facilities crucial to war effort [42]
• 1951 – UNIVAC I computer uses phosphor bronze tape for magnetic data storage [26]
• 1958 – Seagram Building becomes first skyscraper entirely sheathed in architectural bronze (3.2 million pounds) [43]
• 1960s – COMPAC submarine cable system uses bronze components in repeaters for trans-Pacific communications [44]
• 1967 – Italy finalizes bronzital alloy composition for lira coins (92% copper, 6% aluminum, 2% nickel) [30]
• 1974 – D’Addario markets phosphor bronze as superior acoustic guitar string material [45]
• 1980s – Development of optical submarine cables continues using bronze components in housings [44]
• 1984 – ANZCAN cable replaces COMPAC with bronze components in solid-state repeaters [44]
• 1990s – Nordic Gold developed as aluminum bronze for European coinage (89% copper, 5% aluminum, 5% zinc, 1% tin) [30]
• 1995 – PACRIM cable system deployed with bronze fittings for Pacific communications [44]
• 2000s – Aluminum bronze increasingly used for desalination plant components due to seawater resistance [46]
• 2001 – Olin Corporation develops improved phosphor bronze alloy for electronic connectors [24, 26]
• 2010s – Beryllium copper (bronze alloy containing 0.5-3% beryllium) battery contacts become standard in consumer electronics despite health concerns [39, 40]
• 2020s – Research into beryllium-free bronze alloys seeks safer alternatives while maintaining performance [47]
• 2024 – Bronze bearings remain essential in electric vehicle motors and wind turbines for renewable energy [2, 48]

Final Thoughts

As we stand at the threshold of new technological frontiers—quantum computing, space exploration, sustainable energy—bronze remains quietly essential, a testament to the enduring value of materials that combine multiple beneficial properties. The alloy that once defined an entire age of human development now enables the technologies defining our future. Modern bronze formulations, engineered at the molecular level for specific applications, bear little resemblance to their ancient predecessors, yet they share the same fundamental principle: the synergistic combination of elements creating something greater than the sum of its parts.

Perhaps the most profound lesson from bronze’s 5,000-year journey is that true innovation often lies not in replacing the old with the new, but in continuously reimagining existing technologies for contemporary challenges. Bronze succeeded not because it was perfect, but because it was adaptable. When iron threatened to make it obsolete, bronze found new life in applications where its unique properties—corrosion resistance, acoustic qualities, low friction, electrical conductivity—made it irreplaceable. This adaptability mirrors humanity’s own resilience and creativity.

Looking forward, bronze’s future seems as secure as its past is illustrious. As we grapple with challenges like climate change and resource scarcity, bronze’s recyclability becomes increasingly valuable—bronze artifacts can be melted and recast indefinitely without losing their essential properties. In an age of planned obsolescence, bronze objects endure for centuries, embodying sustainability principles we’re only now beginning to fully appreciate. The bronze bells cast in medieval foundries still ring today; the bronze bearings in renewable energy infrastructure will serve future generations.

The history of bronze reminds us that the materials shaping our world are not merely passive substances but active participants in human progress. They enable new possibilities, preserve cultural heritage, and connect us across vast spans of time and space. In every bronze artifact—whether a 5,000-year-old Sumerian blade or a cutting-edge electrical component—we glimpse both where we’ve been and where we’re going, bound together by an alloy that has proven itself, quite literally, timeless.

Appendix:

1. Bronze In The Ancient Era References

[1] Chapter 4.2 — c. 3500 BCE: Metallurgy | by Et3rnal | Medium – https://medium.com/@Et3rnal_Stoic/chapter-4-2-c-3500-bce-ba6c28a5f54b

[2] The Secrets of Ancient Sumerian Metal Manufacturing & Impact Today – Cozzi Recycling – https://cozzirecycling.com/sumerian-metal-manufacturing/

[3] Chapter 5: The Bronze Age Near East – https://web.ics.purdue.edu/~rauhn/CWC_text/CWC_4.htm

[4] Bronze Age – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age

[5] The Indus River Valley Civilization | World Civilization – https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/the-indus-river-valley-civilization/

[6] Bronze Age – https://www.history.com/topics/pre-history/bronze-age

[7] (PDF) Arsenic in the network: Arsenical Copper in Minoan Crete – https://www.academia.edu/40820849/Arsenic_in_the_network_Arsenical_Copper_in_Minoan_Crete

[8] The 3 Major Periods of the Metal Ages: Bronze, Copper, and Iron – MFG Shop – https://shop.machinemfg.com/the-3-major-periods-of-the-metal-ages-bronze-copper-and-iron/

[9] The History of Bronze: How It Shaped Ancient Civilizations – https://www.thearchaeologist.org/blog/the-history-of-bronze-how-it-shaped-ancient-civilizations

[10] 60 Centuries of Copper: The Beginnings of Bronze – https://copper.org/education/history/60centuries/raw_material/thebeginnings.php

[11] 2.5: Indus Valley – Harappan and Mohenjo-Daro (3300 BCE – 1900 BCE) – Humanities LibreTexts – https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/Evergreen_Valley_College/Asian_Art_History_(Gustlin_and_Gustlin)/02:_Neolithic_Period_(5000_BCE__2000_BCE)/2.05:_Indus_Valley__Harappan_and_Mohenjo-Daro_(3300_BCE__1900_BCE)

[12] Weapons in Ancient Egypt – World History Encyclopedia – https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1035/weapons-in-ancient-egypt/

[13] Ancient Egyptian Weapons and the Innovative Art of Warfare – https://www.egypttoursportal.com/en-us/blog/ancient-egyptian-civilization/ancient-egyptian-weapons/

[14] 3.3: Bronze Age – Shang Dynasty (1600 BCE – 1046 BCE) – Humanities LibreTexts – https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/Evergreen_Valley_College/Asian_Art_History_(Gustlin_and_Gustlin)/03:_Bronze_Age_(2000_BCE__500_BCE)/3.03:_Bronze_Age_-_Shang_Dynasty_(1600_BCE__1046_BCE)

[15] 2000 BCE: The Dawn of Bronze Age Civilizations – Voices From History – https://voicesfromhistory.com/2000-bce/

[16] The Shang Dynasty, 1600 to 1050 BCE | FSI – https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/the_shang_dynasty_1600_to_1050_bce

[17] Here Are 7 Greek Armor and Weapons From Mycenaean Civilization | TheCollector – https://www.thecollector.com/greek-armor-weapons-myceneaen-civilization/

[18] Shang and Zhou Dynasties: The Bronze Age of China – The Metropolitan Museum of Art – https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/shzh/hd_shzh.htm

[19] Soldiers Put an Ancient Greek Suit of Armor to the Test, and It Passed – https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/soldiers-put-an-ancient-greek-suit-of-armor-to-the-test-and-it-passed-180984411/

[20] Late Bronze Age collapse | EBSCO Research Starters – https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/anthropology/late-bronze-age-collapse

[21] Chinese bronzes – Zhou Dynasty, Ritual Vessels, Bronze Casting | Britannica – https://www.britannica.com/art/Chinese-bronzes/The-Zhou-dynasty-1046-256-bce

[22] 3.4: Bronze Age- Western Zhou Dynasty (1046 BCE – 771 BCE) – Humanities LibreTexts – https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/Evergreen_Valley_College/Asian_Art_History_(Gustlin_and_Gustlin)/03:_Bronze_Age_(2000_BCE__500_BCE)/3.04:_Bronze_Age-_Western_Zhou_Dynasty_(1046_BCE__771_BCE)

[23] Luristan Bronze | Ancient, Persian, Artifacts | Britannica – https://www.britannica.com/art/Luristan-Bronze

[24] Etruscan Bronze Sculpture – World History Encyclopedia – https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1030/etruscan-bronze-sculpture/

[25] 753 BC – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/753_BC

[26] The Monarchy (753 BC – 509 BC) – The history of the Roman Monarchy – https://www.rome.net/roman-monarchy

[27] Roman History (753 B.C. – A.D. 476) – http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/romanhistory.html

2. Bronze In The Middle Ages References

[1] Bonshō – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonsh%C5%8D

[2] Dong Son drum – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dong_Son_drum

[3] Kaiyuan Tongbao – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiyuan_Tongbao

[4] Cash (Chinese coin) – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_(Chinese_coin)

[5] Islamic Metalwork – https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2012/byzantium-and-islam/blog/material-matters/posts/islamic-metalwork

[6] Spotlight on Japan | National Bell Festival – https://www.bells.org/japan

[7] Percussion instrument – Asia, Drums, Gongs | Britannica – https://www.britannica.com/art/percussion-instrument/Percussion-instruments-in-Asia

[8] Aquamanile – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquamanile

[9] Metalwork – Medieval, Craftsmanship, Artistry – https://www.britannica.com/topic/metalwork/Europe-from-the-Middle-Ages

[10] Auspicious Metals from the Orient: Ancient Bronzes of China, Korea, and Japan – https://www.chnmuseum.cn/portals/0/web/zt/202207dfjj/indexen.html

[11] Eagle lectern – https://www.britannica.com/technology/eagle-lectern

[12] Metalwork – Oxford Islamic Studies Online – http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t276/e596

[13] Attributed to Jehan Aert van Tricht | Lectern in the Form of an Eagle – The Metropolitan Museum of Art – https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/471867

[14] Bernward Doors – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernward_Doors

[15] Science in the Tang (618–906) and Song (960–1279) Dynasties – Education – Asian Art Museum – https://education.asianart.org/resources/science-in-the-tang-618-906-and-song-960-1279-dynasties/

[16] Metalwork – Islamic Art, Craftsmanship, Techniques – https://www.britannica.com/topic/metalwork/Islam

[17] Renier de Huy – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renier_de_Huy

[18] Metalwork – Italian Renaissance, Bronze, Iron – https://www.britannica.com/topic/metalwork/Italy

[19] Aquamanile • History of the Germans Podcast – https://historyofthegermans.com/2022/03/13/aquamanile/

[20] Medieval Aquamanilia – The Metropolitan Museum of Art – https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/aqua/hd_aqua.htm

[21] German Romanesque engraved bronze bowl – https://www.bb-worksofart.com/Works-of-Art/Bronze/German-Romanesque-engraved-bronze-bowl

[22] Gifts of the King? „Hanseatic” Bronze Bowls in 13th century Estonia: Origins, Context and Meanings – https://www.academia.edu/43841243/Gifts_of_the_King_Hanseatic_Bronze_Bowls_in_13th_century_Estonia_Origins_Context_and_Meanings

[23] Eagle Lectern | German (Hildesheim) – The Metropolitan Museum of Art – https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/478614

[24] SALZBURG, leather belt, 13th century, bronze Wulflund – https://www.wulflund.com/leather-products/belts/salzburg-medieval-leather-belt-bronze.html/

[25] Crucifixus Dolorosus or the Forked Crucifix from c. 1300 – https://www.medieval.eu/crucifixus-dolorosus-forked-crucifix-from-c-1300/

[26] Guild – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild

[27] List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world

[28] Song dynasty – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty

[29] Mortar and Pestle made for Abu Bakr ‘Ali Malikzad al-Tabrizi – https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/444529

[30] bronze casting – My medieval foundry – https://medievalfoundry.wordpress.com/tag/bronze-casting/

[31] Joseon – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon

[32] Crotal bell – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crotal_bell

[33] Astrolabe – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe

[34] 60 Centuries of Copper: The Mediaeval Bell-founders – https://copper.org/education/history/60centuries/middle_ages/themediaeval.php

[35] Is there a correlation between Medieval Europeans who made church bells and the making of bronze cannons? – https://www.quora.com/Is-there-a-correlation-between-Medieval-Europeans-who-made-church-bells-and-the-making-of-bronze-cannons

[36] Brass Eagle Lecterns in England – https://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/brass-eagle-lecterns/brass-eagle-lecterns.htm

3. Bronze In The Early-Modern Era References

[1] Military technology – Artillery, Development, Warfare – https://www.britannica.com/technology/military-technology/The-development-of-artillery

[2] Renaissance Sculpture from Florence and Rome – https://www.italian-renaissance-art.com/Renaissance-Sculpture.html

[3] Bronze Sculpture in the Renaissance – https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/bronze-sculpture-in-the-renaissance

[4] Spanish colonization of the Americas – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas

[5] Ottoman weapons – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_weapons

[6] Ottoman cannon — Google Arts & Culture – https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/ottoman-cannon/kwESRM-TIrt-8Q?hl=en

[7] Benin Bronzes – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benin_Bronzes

[8] History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent

[9] History of Bronze Castings – http://www.thebronzesmith.com/blog/2015/8/17/history-of-bronze-from-the-book-methods-of-modern-sculptors-by-ronal-d-young-rober-a-fennell

[10] Nordic Bronze Age – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age

[11] Bonshō – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonsh%C5%8D

[12] Gothic cathedrals and churches – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_cathedrals_and_churches

[13] Recasting the Past: The Art of Chinese Bronzes, 1100–1900 – https://www.metmuseum.org/met-publications/recasting-the-past-the-art-of-chinese-bronzes-1100-1900

[15] British Cannon Design 1600 – 1800 – https://www.arc.id.au/Cannon.html

[16] Long in Exile, the Looted Benin Bronzes Tell the Story of a Mighty African Kingdom – https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-long-exile-looted-benin-bronzes-story-mighty-african-kingdom

[17] Bellfounding – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellfounding

[19] Bronze Weapons in the 1700s – https://fortticonderoga.org/news/glitters-not-gold/

[20] Art and Imagination in Spanish America, 1500–1800 – https://www.slam.org/exhibitions/art-and-imagination-in-spanish-america-1500-1800-highlights-from-lacmas-collection/

[21] colonization of the Americas – https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/colonization-of-the-Americas/272832

[22] Revolutionary War Artillery & Cannons – https://www.americanrevolution.org/artillery-and-cannons/

[24] Ages of Bronze: European Sculpture 1500-1900 – https://smartmuseum.uchicago.edu/exhibitions/ages-of-bronze-european-sculpture-1500-1900/

4. Bronze In The Modern Era References

[1] The Complete History of Bearings You Need to Know – https://www.bdsbearing.com/blog/bearing-history

[2] The Evolution of Industrial Bearings | Mechanical Power Inc. – https://www.mechanicalpower.net/blog/bearings/the-evolution-of-industrial-bearings/

[3] The History of Ball Bearings – https://resources.hartfordtechnologies.com/blog/the-history-of-ball-bearings

[4] Who Invented the Ball Bearing? | LILY-Bearing – https://www.lily-bearing.com/resources/blog/who-invented-the-ball-bearing/

[5] Canon de 12 Gribeauval – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_de_12_Gribeauval

[6] Napoleon Bonaparte and the 12 pounder Gribeauval Cannon & Limber – https://www.palmersarmoury.co.za/article/napoleon-bonaparte-and-the-12-pounder-gribeauval-cannon-limber

[7] Gribeauval system – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gribeauval_system

[8] Cannon – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannon

[9] History of cannons – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cannons

[10] Dardanelles Gun – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dardanelles_Gun

[11] Military technology – Artillery, Development, Warfare | Britannica – https://www.britannica.com/technology/military-technology/The-development-of-artillery

[12] Canon de 8 Gribeauval – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_de_8_Gribeauval

[13] British Cannon Design 1600 – 1800 – https://www.arc.id.au/Cannon.html

[14] Cast Bronze Bells – The Verdin Company – https://www.verdin.com/bells/cast-bronze-bells/

[15] How Bearings Fueled the Industrial Revolution – ZNL – https://znlbearings.com/how-bearings-fueled-the-industrial-revolution/

[16] Propeller – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller

[17] Transatlantic telegraph cable – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable

[18] Submarine Telegraph Company – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_Telegraph_Company

[19] McShane Bell Company, Bronze Church Bell Casting & Carillons – https://mcshanebell.com/

[20] The Model 1857 12-pounder – Warfare History Network – https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-model-1857-12-pounder/

[21] The First Transatlantic Telegraph Cable Was a Bold, Beautiful Failure – IEEE Spectrum – https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-first-transatlantic-telegraph-cable-was-a-bold-beautiful-failure

[22] The First Transatlantic Telegraph Cable Was a Bold, Short-Lived Success | HISTORY – https://www.history.com/articles/first-transatlantic-telegraph-cable

[23] The Development of Artillery – https://www.gibmuseum.gi/our-history/military-history/development-of-artillery

[24] Innovations: Phosphor Bronze: Teaching an Old Dog New Tricks – https://copper.org/publications/newsletters/innovations/2001/06/phosphor_bronze.html

[25] Phosphor bronze – CAMEO – https://cameo.mfa.org/wiki/Phosphor_bronze

[26] Phosphor bronze – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphor_bronze

[27] Bellfounding – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellfounding

[28] Why are ship propellers made from bronze? – Quora – https://www.quora.com/Why-are-ship-propellers-made-from-bronze

[29] Still In The Bronze Age: Why Is Bronze The Go-To Industry Standard? – https://prop-one.com/still-in-the-bronze-age-why-is-bronze-the-go-to-industry-standard/

[30] Aluminium bronze – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_bronze

[31] Aluminum Bronze: Definition, Composition, Types, Properties, and Applications | Xometry – https://www.xometry.com/resources/materials/aluminum-bronze/

[32] A Guide to Different Types of Bronze Alloys – MetalTek – https://www.metaltek.com/blog/a-guide-to-different-types-of-bronze-alloys/

[33] Nickel Aluminum Bronze Corrosion Resistance – National Bronze Manufacturing – https://www.nationalbronze.com/News/nickel-aluminum-bronze-corrosion-resistance/

[34] Silicon Bronze Alloy – Washington Alloy – https://www.washingtonalloy.com/silicon-bronze-alloy/

[35] Silicon Bronze – Weldporn® – WELD EVERY DAMN DAY – https://www.weldporn.com/product/silicon-bronze/

[36] Silicon Bronze MIG (GMAW) – https://www.lincolnelectric.com/en/products/hpg-na-siliconbronze

[37] Aufhauser – C656 Silicon Bronze Alloy – https://www.brazing.com/products/Brazing_alloys/C656.1.aspx

[38] Beryllium copper – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryllium_copper

[39] Beryllium Copper Springs Made by Atlantic Precision Spring – https://www.aps-ct.com/products/contacts/beryllium-copper-battery-contacts/

[40] Why Beryllium Copper Springs Make the Perfect Contacts – https://www.aps-ct.com/blog/why-beryllium-copper-springs-are-perfect-contacts/

[41] ​The History of Bearings – Quality Bearings Online – https://www.qualitybearingsonline.com/blog/the-history-of-bearings/

[42] A Brief History of Bearings – Arvis – https://arvis.co.uk/a-brief-history-of-bearings/

[43] Bronze – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze

[44] At the bottom of the sea: a short history of submarine cables | APNIC Blog – https://blog.apnic.net/2020/02/12/at-the-bottom-of-the-sea-a-short-history-of-submarine-cables/

[45] Common Uses for Phosphor Bronze – https://www.meadmetals.com/blog/common-uses-for-phosphor-bronze

[46] Aluminum bronze – a corrosion resistant metal in sea water – https://academy.ampcometal.com/aluminum-bronze-a-corrosion-resistant-metal-in-sea-water

[47] Spring and Wire Form Material: Beryllium Copper – Western Spring – https://www.westernspring.com/western-spring-resources/spring-and-wire-form-material-beryllium-copper/

[48] What Is Aluminum Bronze? | Aluminum Bronze Alloy – https://www.metaltek.com/blog/what-is-aluminum-bronze/