The Early Modern Era (1500-1800 CE) marked a transformative period in the global history of copper, characterized by unprecedented expansion in mining operations, revolutionary advances in metallurgical techniques, and the metal’s central role in emerging global trade networks.

From the towering smelters of Falun in Sweden to the bustling ports of Nagasaki, from the ancient mines of South America to the nascent operations in colonial North America, copper became not merely a commodity but a driving force of economic development, military power, and technological innovation. This period witnessed copper’s evolution from a regionally significant metal to a truly global resource, as European expansion, Asian trade networks, and New World discoveries converged to create the first genuinely worldwide copper economy.

A History Of Copper In The Early Modern Era (1500 CE – 1800 CE)

The three centuries spanning 1500 to 1800 CE witnessed an extraordinary transformation in copper production, trade, and utilization across the globe. This period saw the rise of major copper producing regions, from Sweden’s Falun mine supplying two-thirds of Europe’s copper needs in the 17th century, to Japan emerging as a world leader in copper exports, to the exploitation of South American deposits that would later dominate global production. The era was marked by significant technological advances in smelting and refining, the development of copper-based weaponry including bronze artillery, and the establishment of complex international trade networks that connected mines in Sweden to markets in Asia, facilitating the first truly global copper economy that laid the foundations for the modern mining industry.

Chronology

• 1500s – Bronze cannon casting greatly improves in Europe with lighter cannon replacing bombards; copper alloys become essential for military artillery [1, 2]
• 1514 – Portuguese establish trade with China from Malacca, initiating copper trade routes that would later include Japan [3]
• 1525 – Spanish forces begin using bronze artillery to break up heavy masses of pikemen in Italian campaigns, demonstrating copper’s military importance [4]
• 1535 – Two bronze cannon cast for English warship Mary Rose, demonstrating advanced copper alloy metallurgy for naval warfare [5]
• 1536 – Spanish conquistador Diego de Almagro’s men obtain copper horseshoes from indigenous peoples at Chuquicamata in present-day Chile [6]
• 1543 – Portuguese traders arrive in Japan, beginning the Nanban trade period which would include significant copper exports; English parson perfects method for casting cannon of iron, competing with bronze [2, 3]
• 1545 – Mary Rose sinks with bronze armament including cannon royal, demi-cannon, culverins showing variety of copper-based weapons [5]
• 1550 – Copper has been mined for centuries at Chuquicamata, as evidenced by discovery of “Copper Man” mummy dated to 550 CE found in ancient mine shaft [6]
• 1556 – Emperor Ferdinand marches against Turks with 57 heavy and 127 light pieces of bronze ordnance, showing scale of copper use in warfare [4]
• 1585 – Copper roof installed at Kronborg Castle (Hamlet’s Elsinore) in Denmark, one of northern Europe’s most important Renaissance buildings [7]
• 1587 – Japan resumes minting its own copper coinage after stopping production due to Chinese coin imports [8]
• 1592 – Japan introduces system of foreign trade licenses to prevent smuggling and piracy, affecting copper trade [9]
• 1600 – Ashio Copper Mine in Japan operates under Tokugawa shogunate ownership, producing about 1,500 tons annually; Falun mine in Sweden approaches peak production capacity, becoming vital to Swedish economy [10, 11]
• 1633 – Tokugawa government adopts isolationist Sakoku policy but continues copper exports through Dutch traders [8]
• 1633-1637 – Japanese merchants export approximately 101,600,640 mon (copper coins) to Vietnam through Dutch intermediaries [8]
• 1639 – Japan prohibits trade with Portugal but continues copper exports exclusively through Dutch East India Company at Nagasaki, maintaining Japan’s position as major copper supplier [3]
• 1650 – Falun copper mine reaches peak production of 3,000 tonnes per annum, highest output in its history; 16 private mints operate in Japan for production of Kan’ei Tsūhō copper coins [8, 11]
• 1650s – Swedish government uses Falun copper revenues to fund military campaigns during “Great Power Era” [11]
• 1659 – Japan begins minting copper Nagasaki trade coins with Song dynasty inscriptions specifically for Southeast Asian markets where such coins were already familiar, facilitating copper export trade [8]
• 1670s – Japanese copper exported to Europe reaches between one-third and one-half of Sweden’s output; Sumitomo establishes nanban-buki copper refining technique in Osaka, improving copper purity for export [12]
• 1687 – Major cave-in at Falun copper mine significantly reduces copper production capacity and ends the town’s mining prosperity [10]
• 1697 – Surirey de St. Remy’s “Memoires d’Artillerie” depicts process of sawing bronze 24-pounder cannons for recycling copper [13]
• 1700s – Copper deposits at Chuquicamata in Chile continue to be exploited during colonial period; Falun mine copper production drops to barely 1,000 tonnes per year; Chilean copper begins export directly to Spain via Straits of Magellan and Buenos Aires; Japan’s copper output reaches approximately 6,000 tons/year (highest in world), accounting for 60-70% of Japanese exports; Belvedere Palace in Vienna constructed with copper roof and four copper domes [6, 12, 14, 15]
• 1715 – Japanese Shogunate bans export of copper, ending mon coin trade to Southeast Asia [8]
• 1716 – British Board of Ordnance accepts Albert Borgard’s bronze cannon designs, standardizing copper-alloy artillery in weights of 4 to 42 pounds, creating consistent demand for copper in military production [1]
• 1722 – Colonel John Armstrong redesigns Borgard system to reduce copper content by creating lighter bronze artillery pieces while maintaining effectiveness [1]
• 1727 – Christ Church in Philadelphia becomes oldest-known copper-roofed church in America [16]
• 1738 – Japanese government authorizes manufacture of iron Kan’ei Tsūhō 1 mon coins due to copper shortages [8]
• 1743 – Spanish Royal Ordinance specifies five calibres of bronze cannon (4, 8, 12, 16 and 24-pounder) standardizing copper use in artillery [17]
• 1747 – Spanish cannon cast from recycled bronze marked “Bronzes Viexos” (old bronze) showing copper recycling practices [13]
• 1750 – Norwegian copperworks produce primarily gar copper (98-99% pure refined copper) for export; advances in boring machines allow bronze cannon to be cast solid then bored out [2, 18]
• 1756 – Spanish Royal Ordinance establishes four arsenals for bronze artillery production, centralizing Spain’s military copper consumption at Barcelona, Zaragoza, Seville and La Coruña [17]
• 1757 – Parys mine in Anglesey, Wales resumes copper production after centuries of dormancy, eventually becoming major supplier producing 2,000-3,000 tons annually [19]
• 1766 – Jean Maritz II improves Spanish copper-bronze cannon foundries at Seville and Barcelona, increasing efficiency of military copper consumption [17]
• 1768 – Horizontal boring machines for bronze cannon production installed at Seville foundry, allowing more precise use of copper alloys through solid casting techniques [17]
• 1779 – Maritz simultaneous boring and finishing machines at Seville halve production time for bronze cannon, significantly increasing copper processing efficiency for military needs [17]
• 1780 – Seville and Barcelona foundries produce over 500 bronze cannon annually, each 24-pounder requiring up to 6,500 pounds of copper alloy [13, 17]
• 1785 – Chinese copper coins continue to circulate widely in Japan despite domestic coin production [20]
• 1790s – Parys mine in Anglesey regularly produces 2,000 to 3,000 tons of copper per annum; in 1797 drastic increase in copper imports to Copenhagen, with 111.40 skippund copper sheets transported compared to 47 skippund in 1793 [18, 19]
• 1800 – Edward Charles Howard discovers mercury fulminate, revolutionizing copper/bronze cannon firing mechanisms by replacing slow match ignition, making artillery more reliable and weatherproof [4, 21]

Final Thoughts

The Early Modern Era’s copper history reveals far more than the story of a single metal – it illuminates the interconnected nature of global economic development centuries before the Industrial Revolution. The period’s legacy extends beyond tonnages and trade routes to fundamental changes in how societies organized production, financed operations, and connected distant markets. From the joint-stock structure pioneered at Falun that presaged modern corporate organization, to the sophisticated refining techniques developed in Osaka that enhanced product quality, to the transcontinental trade networks that moved Swedish copper to Asian markets and Japanese copper to European ones, these three centuries established patterns that would define the modern mining industry.

As we face contemporary challenges of resource extraction and global supply chains, the Early Modern Era’s copper economy offers both cautionary tales of environmental degradation and inspiring examples of technological innovation, reminding us that the quest to balance resource exploitation with sustainable development is not new, but rather a challenge that has shaped human civilization for centuries.

Thanks for reading!

References

[1] British Cannon Design 1600 – 1800 – https://www.arc.id.au/Cannon.html

[2] Military technology – Artillery, Development, Warfare | Britannica – https://www.britannica.com/technology/military-technology/The-development-of-artillery

[3] Nanban trade – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanban_trade

[4] The Project Gutenberg eBook of Artillery through the Ages – A. Manucy – https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20483/20483-h/20483-h.htm

[5] 60 Centuries of Copper: Mediaeval Ordnance – https://copper.org/education/history/60centuries/middle_ages/mediaeval.php

[6] Chuquicamata – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuquicamata

[7] Copper in architecture – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_in_architecture

[8] Japanese mon (currency) – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_mon_(currency)

[9] Timeline of international trade – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_international_trade

[10] Falun | Mining, Copper & Smelting | Britannica – https://www.britannica.com/place/Falun

[11] Mine of the Month: The Epic Tale of Sweden’s 1,000-year-old Falun Mine – Stockhead – https://stockhead.com.au/resources/mine-of-the-month-the-epic-tale-of-swedens-1000-year-old-falun-mine/

[12] Japanese Copper Across the Sea | About Sumitomo | Sumitomo Group Public Affairs Committee – https://www.sumitomo.gr.jp/english/history/s_history/japan_co/

[13] Bronze Weapons in the 1700s – https://fortticonderoga.org/news/glitters-not-gold/

[14] History of mining in Chile – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mining_in_Chile

[15] Enduring Copper Roofing Around the World | Prestige Roofing – https://www.prestigeroofinglv.com/copper-roofing-domes-around-the-world/

[16] Copper Facts: Copper in Architecture – https://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/architecture/print-category.html

[17] Spanish Bronze Cannon – https://www.ministryforheritage.gi/heritage-and-antiquities/spanish-bronze-cannon-1050

[18] Copper trade and production of copper, brass and bronze goods in the Oldenburg monarchy – https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03585522.2019.1566767

[19] 60 Centuries of Copper: The Peak Years of British Copper Mining – https://copper.org/education/history/60centuries/raw_material/thepeak.php

[20] Historical events and currencies in use: Contents – Currency Museum Bank of Japan – https://www.imes.boj.or.jp/cm/english/history/content/

[21] Edward Charles Howard – Linda Hall Library – https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/edward-charles-howard/