A Chronology Of Biotechnology’s Modern Era (1945-present)

Posted on by Brian Colwell

The modern era of biotechnology represents one of humanity’s most transformative scientific revolutions, fundamentally altering our understanding of life itself and our ability to manipulate it for the betterment of society. Beginning in the mid-20th century, this revolution has progressed from the initial elucidation of DNA’s structure to today’s sophisticated genome editing tools and synthetic biology platforms. The convergence of molecular biology, genetics, and technology has created unprecedented opportunities to address global challenges in healthcare, agriculture, and environmental sustainability.

This chronology traces the pivotal moments that have shaped biotechnology from 1945 to the present day, documenting how theoretical discoveries evolved into practical applications that now touch every aspect of human life. From the foundational work of Watson and Crick to the revolutionary CRISPR-Cas9 system, from the birth of recombinant DNA technology to the creation of synthetic organisms, each milestone has built upon previous achievements while opening new frontiers of possibility.

The journey chronicled here reveals not just scientific progress, but also the evolution of ethical frameworks, regulatory systems, and commercial enterprises that have grown alongside these technological advances. As we stand at the threshold of even more profound capabilities—from personalized medicine to engineered ecosystems—understanding this historical trajectory becomes essential for navigating the future of biotechnology and its implications for humanity.

A Chronology Of Biotechnology’s Modern Era

There were two key events that have come to be seen as scientific breakthroughs beginning the era that would unite genetics with biotechnology: One was the 1953 discovery of the structure of DNA, by Watson and Crick, and the other was the 1973 discovery by Cohen and Boyer of a recombinant DNA technique by which a section of DNA was cut from the plasmid of an E. coli bacterium and transferred into the DNA of another. Popularly referred to as “genetic engineering,” it came to be defined as the basis of new biotechnology.

  • 1945 – Rosalind Franklin earns PhD in physical chemistry from Cambridge University [1, 2]
  • 1947 – Rosalind Franklin moves to Paris and becomes an accomplished X-ray crystallographer at the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de l’État [1, 2]
  • 1950 – Erwin Chargaff discovers that in any double-stranded DNA, the number of guanine units equals cytosine units and adenine units equal thymine units, establishing “Chargaff’s Rules” [3]
  • 1951 – George Gey establishes the HeLa cell line from Henrietta Lacks, creating the first continuous human cell line for medical research [4]
  • 1952 – Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase prove that DNA is the molecule of heredity [5]
  • 1953 – James Watson and Francis Crick reveal the double helix structure of DNA [4, 6, 7]
  • 1955 – Jonas Salk develops the first polio vaccine using mammalian cell culture technology [4]
  • 1956 – Arthur Kornberg isolates DNA polymerase for the first time [4]
  • 1958 – Edward Tatum and Joshua Lederberg win Nobel Prize for showing genes regulate metabolism by producing specific enzymes [8]
  • 1959 – Arthur Kornberg makes DNA in a test tube for the first time [4, 8]
  • 1960 – The first automatic protein sequencer is developed [4]
  • 1960 – French scientists discover messenger RNA (mRNA) [4, 8]
  • 1961 – Jacob and Monod propose the concept of the Operon [6]
  • 1962 – The DNA composition of humans is discovered to be 99% similar to that of chimpanzees and gorillas [9, 4]
  • 1964 – The existence of reverse transcriptase is predicted [8]
  • 1966 – The genetic code is deciphered for the first time [4, 8]
  • 1967 – DNA ligase, which links DNA fragments together, is used for the first time [4]
  • 1968 – Scientists discover restriction enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences [4]
  • 1969 – The first vaccine for measles is developed [4]
  • 1970 – Restriction enzymes are discovered and characterized [4, 8]
  • 1970 – Har Gobind Khorana synthesizes the first complete gene [4]
  • 1971 – Reverse transcriptase enzyme is isolated and characterized [4]
  • 1972 – The DNA composition of chimpanzees and gorillas is discovered to be 99% similar to humans [9, 10]
  • 1973 – Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer perform the first successful recombinant DNA experiment [9, 4, 10, 11, 8]
  • 1974 – Scientists develop the first biocement for industrial applications [9, 10]
  • 1975 – Georges Köhler and César Milstein develop method for producing monoclonal antibodies [9, 10, 6]
  • 1975 – The Asilomar Conference establishes guidelines for recombinant DNA research [12]
  • 1976 – Molecular hybridization is used for prenatal diagnosis of alpha thalassemia [8]
  • 1977 – Frederick Sanger sequences the first complete genome (bacteriophage Phi X 174) [13]
  • 1978 – North Carolina scientists show it’s possible to introduce specific mutations at specific sites in DNA [9, 10]
  • 1978 – Louise Brown, the first “test-tube baby,” is born through in vitro fertilization [13]
  • 1978 – Recombinant human insulin is produced for the first time [8]
  • 1980 – The U.S. Supreme Court rules in Diamond v. Chakrabarty that genetically modified organisms can be patented [8]
  • 1980 – U.S. patent for gene cloning is awarded to Cohen and Boyer [9, 10]
  • 1981 – Scientists at Ohio University produce the first transgenic animals (mice) [8]
  • 1981 – Chinese scientists successfully clone a fish (golden carp) [13]
  • 1982 – Humulin, human insulin produced by genetically engineered bacteria, becomes the first biotech drug approved by FDA [9, 10, 8]
  • 1983 – Kary Mullis develops the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique [9, 10, 8]
  • 1983 – The first genetic markers for specific inherited diseases are found [8]
  • 1984 – Alec Jeffreys discovers genetic fingerprinting technique [13]
  • 1985 – Scientists find a gene marker for cystic fibrosis on chromosome 7 [13]
  • 1986 – The first monoclonal antibodies are used in organ transplants [13]
  • 1987 – First conviction based on genetic fingerprinting evidence in the UK [13]
  • 1988 – First patent for a genetically modified animal (Harvard oncomouse) is issued [8]
  • 1989 – The Human Genome Project is proposed; James Watson appointed as first director [4, 14]
  • 1990 – The Human Genome Project officially launches [4, 15, 14]
  • 1990 – First gene therapy trial begins for adenosine deaminase deficiency [16, 17]
  • 1993 – Francisco Mojica first characterizes what would later be called CRISPR sequences [18]
  • 1995 – First complete genome of a free-living organism (Haemophilus influenzae) is sequenced by Craig Venter’s team [19]
  • 1996 – Dolly the sheep is born, the first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell [6, 11, 8, 20, 21]
  • 1997 – Polly the sheep is born, genetically modified to produce human proteins in her milk [22]
  • 1998 – Craig Venter founds Celera Genomics to sequence the human genome [23, 19]
  • 1999 – First human chromosome (chromosome 22) is completely sequenced [14]
  • 2000 – “Rough draft” of the human genome completed [9]
  • 2001 – Human genome sequences published by both public consortium and Celera Genomics [9, 23]
  • 2002 – Rice becomes the first crop to have its genome decoded [9]
  • 2003 – The Human Genome Project is completed [9, 15]
  • 2005 – Zinc-finger nucleases are shown to modify genetic mutations in human cells [12]
  • 2006 – Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are created from adult skin cells [13]
  • 2007 – James Watson’s personal genome is sequenced [6]
  • 2008 – Scientists create the first synthetic bacterial genome (M. genitalium JCVI-1.0) [24]
  • 2010 – Craig Venter’s team creates the first synthetic organism (Mycoplasma mycoides JCVI-syn1.0) [24]
  • 2010 – First cancer vaccine (Sipuleucel-T/Provenge) approved by FDA [25]
  • 2011 – TALENs are used for the first time in clinical trials [12]
  • 2011 – Emmanuelle Charpentier discovers tracrRNA for Cas9 system [18]
  • 2012 – Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier publish seminal paper on CRISPR-Cas9 [26, 27, 12]
  • 2013 – Feng Zhang adapts CRISPR-Cas9 for genome editing in mammalian cells [18, 28]
  • 2013 – First CRISPR clinical trials begin [28]
  • 2015 – First gene-edited human embryos reported (non-viable) [16]
  • 2016 – First allogeneic cord blood therapy approved by FDA [12]
  • 2017 – FDA approves Kymriah, first CAR-T cell therapy for cancer [8, 29]
  • 2017 – FDA approves Luxturna, first gene therapy for an inherited disease in the U.S. [17, 30, 29, 31]
  • 2018 – He Jiankui announces birth of first gene-edited babies (controversial) [16]
  • 2019 – FDA approves Zolgensma for spinal muscular atrophy [30]
  • 2020 – Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna win Nobel Prize for CRISPR [16, 26]
  • 2020 – First mRNA vaccines (Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna) approved for COVID-19 [32, 33, 34]
  • 2021 – Base editing and prime editing technologies advance for precise genetic modifications [26]
  • 2022 – AlphaFold predicts structures of nearly all known proteins [35]
  • 2023 – FDA approves first CRISPR therapy for sickle cell disease [12]
  • 2024 – FDA approves CRISPR therapy for β-thalassemia [12]
  • 2025 – Continued advancement in synthetic biology, mRNA therapeutics, and gene editing technologies [35, 36]

Final Thoughts

The chronology of biotechnology’s modern era reveals a remarkable acceleration of discovery and application, particularly in the past two decades. What began as fundamental research into the nature of heredity has evolved into a sophisticated toolkit for manipulating life at the molecular level. The progression from understanding DNA’s structure to editing genomes with precision, from producing the first recombinant proteins to creating synthetic organisms, demonstrates humanity’s growing mastery over biological systems.

Several key themes emerge from this timeline. First, the interdisciplinary nature of biotechnology’s advancement—combining biology, chemistry, physics, computer science, and engineering—has been crucial to its success. Second, the time from basic discovery to practical application has dramatically shortened, as seen in the rapid development of mRNA vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic. Third, each breakthrough has built upon previous work, creating a cumulative effect that accelerates future progress.

Looking forward, biotechnology stands poised to address some of humanity’s greatest challenges: climate change through engineered organisms that capture carbon or produce sustainable materials; food security through enhanced crops and alternative proteins; and disease through personalized medicines and regenerative therapies. However, with these capabilities come profound ethical responsibilities. The controversies surrounding gene-edited babies and the high costs of gene therapies remind us that technological capability must be balanced with ethical consideration and equitable access.

As we continue into biotechnology’s next chapter, the lessons from this chronology suggest that the most transformative discoveries often come from unexpected directions, that collaboration accelerates progress, and that public engagement and ethical frameworks must evolve alongside our technical capabilities. The future of biotechnology will likely be shaped not just by what we can do, but by careful consideration of what we should do, ensuring that these powerful technologies serve the benefit of all humanity.

Thanks for reading!

References

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[2] Dr. Rosalind Franklin – Rosalind Franklin University – https://www.rosalindfranklin.edu/about/facts-figures/dr-rosalind-franklin/

[3] The History of DNA Timeline | DNA Worldwide – https://www.dna-worldwide.com/resource/160/history-dna-timeline

[4] Timeline | An Introduction to Biotechnology – https://www.biotechnology.amgen.com/timeline.html

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[14] Human Genome Project – History of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology – LibGuides at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory – https://cshl.libguides.com/c.php?g=474065&p=3243824

[15] The Human Genome Project – https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project

[16] CRISPR–Cas9: A History of Its Discovery and Ethical Considerations of Its Use in Genome Editing – PMC – https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9377665/

[17] Development of Luxturna Gene Therapy – Milestones In Retina – https://retinahistory.asrs.org/milestones-developments/the-history-and-development-of-luxturna-gene-therapy

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[20] Dolly (sheep) – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolly_(sheep)

[21] Cloning Fact Sheet – https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/Cloning-Fact-Sheet

[22] The History of Cloning – https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cloning/clonezone/

[23] Craig Venter – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Venter

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[25] mRNA-based vaccines and therapeutics: an in-depth survey of current and upcoming clinical applications | Journal of Biomedical Science – https://jbiomedsci.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12929-023-00977-5

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[27] What is CRISPR? A bioengineer explains | Stanford Report – https://news.stanford.edu/stories/2024/06/stanford-explainer-crispr-gene-editing-and-beyond

[28] Questions and Answers about CRISPR | Broad Institute – https://www.broadinstitute.org/what-broad/areas-focus/project-spotlight/questions-and-answers-about-crispr

[29] FDA approves hereditary blindness gene therapy | Nature Biotechnology – https://www.nature.com/articles/nbt0118-6a

[30] Years later, a first-of-its-kind treatment shows the power, and limits, of gene therapy | BioPharma Dive – https://www.biopharmadive.com/news/luxturna-gene-therapy-eye-leber-lca/609832/

[31] First gene therapy for genetic disease approved – https://cen.acs.org/articles/95/web/2017/12/First-gene-therapy-genetic-disease.html

[32] Recent Advancement in mRNA Vaccine Development and Applications – PMC – https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10384963/

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[35] Biotechnology and Synthetic Biology | Stanford Emerging Technology Review – https://setr.stanford.edu/technology/biotechnology-synthetic-biology/2025

[36] Harnessing synthetic biology for advancing RNA therapeutics and vaccine design | npj Systems Biology and Applications – https://www.nature.com/articles/s41540-023-00323-3