From the depths of ancient stellar furnaces to the heart of modern smartphones, lithium has traversed an extraordinary journey through human civilization. As nations vie for control over lithium deposits and engineers push the boundaries of battery technology, this remarkable element has become nothing less than the lifeblood of the twenty-first century’s technological revolution.

Find out more about lithium here and here. Be sure to check out all other critical raw materials (CRMs), as well.

A Complete History Of Lithium

The story of lithium is ultimately a chronicle of human ingenuity—how a soft, silvery metal once used primarily in mood-stabilizing medications has emerged as the critical enabler of renewable energy storage, electric mobility, and the next generation of technological advancement that will define our collective future.

Lithium’s Chemical Discovery (1800-1920s)

The tale of lithium begins with Johan August Arfvedson’s 1817 discovery in petalite ore at Sweden’s Utö mine, where he detected an unknown alkali metal producing a distinctive crimson flame. Naming it after “lithos” (stone), this discovery marked lithium as the first alkali metal found in solid mineral form rather than plant ash. The early isolation challenges, from Brande’s 1821 electrolysis producing mere traces, to Bunsen and Matthiessen’s 1855 breakthrough achieving gram-scale production at 97% purity, established the technical foundation for all future applications. The transformation from laboratory curiosity to industrial material accelerated during World War I, when lithium-based greases proved capable of maintaining viscosity from -40°C to 150°C in aircraft engines – a performance envelope no other material could match. This military application, alongside lithium’s use in signal flares producing crimson light visible for 40 miles, demonstrated the element’s unique properties under extreme conditions.

Lithium’s Nuclear & Psychiatry Power (1930s-1970s)

Lithium’s role in nuclear physics emerged with Ernest Lawrence’s 1932 particle acceleration experiments and reached its apex during the Manhattan Project’s investigation of lithium-6 for tritium production. The 1954 Castle Bravo test’s unexpected 15-megaton yield – caused by lithium-7’s unforeseen fusion reactions – revealed both lithium’s power and the limitations of contemporary nuclear understanding. This incident, contaminating 7,000 square miles with radioactive fallout, fundamentally altered nuclear weapons design philosophy. Parallel to its military applications, John Cade’s 1948 discovery of lithium’s effectiveness in treating manic-depressive illness at Bundoora Repatriation Hospital revolutionized psychiatry. His work with 1,200mg daily doses of lithium citrate, showing improvement in 10 of 10 manic patients, established lithium as the first effective mood stabilizer – though FDA approval wouldn’t come until 1970, following earlier tragedies with lithium chloride salt substitutes.

Lithium’s Battery Revolution (1970s-2000s)

The transformation of lithium from industrial chemical to energy storage cornerstone began with M.S. Whittingham’s 1972 rechargeable battery using titanium disulfide cathodes. John Goodenough’s 1976 discovery of lithium cobalt oxide cathodes enabling 4V potential represented a quantum leap, while Akira Yoshino’s 1985 combination of petroleum coke anodes with LiCoO2 cathodes created the first viable lithium-ion battery architecture. Then, Sony’s 1991 commercial release of the 18650 lithium-ion cell for their HandyCam marked the birth of the portable electronics era. These batteries, achieving 90 Wh/kg and 500 charge cycles, enabled the proliferation of laptops, mobile phones, and digital cameras throughout the 1990s. The technology’s maturation saw energy density climb from 90 Wh/kg to 150 Wh/kg by 2005, with cycle life extending to 1,000 charges.

Lithium’s Electric Vehicle Era (2003-Present)

Tesla’s 2003 founding, with plans to use 6,831 cylindrical lithium-ion cells in a sports car, catalyzed the automotive industry’s electric revolution. The 2008 Tesla Roadster’s 244-mile range shattered preconceptions about electric vehicle capabilities, while the 2012 Model S achieving 265 miles with 7,104 Panasonic cells demonstrated commercial viability at scale. The industry’s trajectory accelerated dramatically post-2015, with Volkswagen’s diesel emissions scandal redirecting $40 billion toward electric vehicle development. 

China’s New Energy Vehicle quotas, the European Union’s Green Deal designating lithium as critical material, and the U.S. Inflation Reduction Act’s $13.5 billion allocation for domestic lithium production, lithium’s geographic concentration – with Chile’s Salar de Atacama containing 1,500 mg/L concentrations and Bolivia’s Salar de Uyuni holding 10 million tons of reserves, the lithium price surge from $6,500/metric ton in 2016 to $17,000 in 2018 triggering over 50 new mining projects and $4 billion in exploration investment, recent technological breakthroughs in direct lithium extraction that reduce processing time from 18 months to mere hours, and new power dynamics and geopolitics in international relations, all reflect lithium’s elevation to strategic resource status. The element that began as a chemical curiosity has become the linchpin of sustainable energy transition, military superiority, and technological advancement. 

A Complete Chronology Of Lithium

Lithium’s journey encompasses breakthroughs in materials science, revolutionary changes in mental health treatment, the transformation of warfare through lightweight alloys and specialized batteries, and the reconfiguration of international trade relationships as nations compete for control of lithium deposits that will power the sustainable technologies of tomorrow.

• 1800 – Alessandro Volta creates the voltaic pile using zinc and copper discs separated by brine-soaked cloth, producing 1.1 volts per cell and establishing electrochemical principles that would enable lithium battery technology 191 years later
• 1817 – Johan August Arfvedson discovers lithium in petalite ore (LiAlSi4O10) at Sweden’s Utö mine while analyzing mineral samples for Berzelius’s laboratory, detecting an alkali metal that produced crimson-red flame unique from sodium and potassium
• 1818 – Arfvedson and Jöns Jacob Berzelius name lithium after the Greek word “lithos” (stone), distinguishing lithium as the first alkali metal discovered in solid mineral form rather than plant ash
• 1821 – William Thomas Brande first isolates metallic lithium through electrolysis of lithium oxide, producing only tiny quantities of the silvery-white metal that immediately tarnished in air
• 1855 – Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen produce lithium metal in gram quantities through electrolysis of molten lithium chloride at 450°C, achieving 97% purity and enabling first studies of lithium’s physical properties
• 1869 – Dmitri Mendeleev places lithium as atomic number 3 in his periodic table with predicted atomic weight of 7, correctly positioning lithium as the lightest metal and first element in Group 1 alkali metals
• 1871 – William Hammond introduces lithium bromide at 2-3 grain doses (130-195mg) as treatment for gout at Bellevue Hospital, based on lithium’s ability to dissolve uric acid crystals in laboratory tests
• 1886 – Carl Gassner patents the zinc-carbon “dry cell” battery producing 1.5 volts, establishing the cylindrical cell design and manganese dioxide cathode chemistry later adapted for lithium batteries
• 1894 – Lithium carbonate enters commercial production at Honigmann & Company in Germany, producing 100 kg annually for pharmaceutical applications at 99% purity using lepidolite ore
• 1914 – World War I drives demand for lithium-based greases that maintain viscosity from -40°C to 150°C in aircraft engines, with lithium stearate soap thickener providing superior water resistance
• 1917 – The U.S. military begins using lithium compounds in signal flares producing intense crimson light visible for 40 miles, with lithium nitrate burning at 2,000°C
• 1923 – German company Metallgesellschaft AG begins commercial lithium metal production at Frankfurt facility, producing 100 kg monthly through fused-salt electrolysis of lithium chloride-potassium chloride mixture
• 1929 – Charles Leiper Grigg creates “Bib-Label Lithiated Lemon-Lime Soda” containing 6.9mg of lithium citrate per bottle as mood-enhancing ingredient, marketed until lithium removal in 1948
• 1932 – Ernest Lawrence bombards lithium-7 targets with accelerated protons in his 27-inch cyclotron at Berkeley, achieving first artificial nuclear disintegration producing helium-4 nuclei
• 1940 – The U.S. military develops lithium complex greases maintaining consistency from -54°C to 177°C for B-17 bomber wheel bearings, using lithium 12-hydroxystearate thickener at 8-12% concentration
• 1942 – Lithium hydride production begins at 50 tons annually for portable hydrogen generators releasing 2,800 liters of hydrogen per kilogram when reacted with water for military weather balloons
• 1945 – The Manhattan Project investigates lithium-6 isotope separation using mercury amalgam exchange columns, achieving 90% enrichment for potential tritium production in nuclear weapons
• 1948 – John Cade discovers lithium’s effectiveness treating manic-depressive patients at Bundoora Repatriation Hospital using 1,200mg daily doses of lithium citrate, with 10 of 10 manic patients showing improvement
• 1949 – The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission begins stockpiling lithium hydroxide at Oak Ridge, accumulating 42,000 tons by 1955 for lithium-6 deuteride production in hydrogen bomb development
• 1950 – The FDA bans lithium from soft drinks after four deaths from lithium chloride salt substitute overdoses, with toxic blood levels exceeding 2.0 mEq/L causing cardiac arrhythmias
• 1952 – Operation Ivy’s “Mike” test detonates first hydrogen bomb using liquid deuterium with lithium-6 deuteride spark plug, yielding 10.4 megatons and proving lithium’s role in thermonuclear weapons
• 1953 – Lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4) becomes commercially available from Metal Hydrides Inc. at $100/pound, providing selective reduction capability 4 times stronger than sodium borohydride
• 1954 – The Castle Bravo test’s lithium-7 undergoes unexpected fusion reactions, producing 15 megatons instead of predicted 6 megatons, contaminating 7,000 square miles with radioactive fallout
• 1955 – Foote Mineral Company begins mining spodumene (LiAlSi2O6) from Kings Mountain pegmatite deposits containing 1.5% lithium oxide, establishing North America’s first lithium hard-rock operation
• 1958 – Thiokol Corporation develops lithium perchlorate-aluminum solid rocket propellant achieving 260 seconds specific impulse, 15% higher than conventional ammonium perchlorate formulations
• 1959 – Lithium fluoride optical crystals with 92% transmission from 0.12 to 6 micrometers wavelength enable infrared missile guidance systems and UV lithography at 193nm
• 1960 – The Soviet Union establishes lithium production at Novosibirsk Chemical Concentrates Plant, processing 5,000 tons annually of spodumene concentrate for lithium-6 enrichment to 95% isotopic purity
• 1962 – Bell Laboratories synthesizes lithium niobate (LiNbO3) crystals with electro-optic coefficient of 31 pm/V, enabling optical modulators for 10 GHz telecommunications
• 1963 – France’s Commissariat à l’énergie atomique begins lithium-6 production at Miramas facility, processing 200 tons annually for Force de Frappe nuclear weapons program
• 1964 – China’s Plant 202 in Baotou initiates lithium-6 isotope separation using mercury amalgam process, achieving 90% enrichment for Project 596 nuclear weapons development
• 1965 – Corning Glass Works introduces CorningWare using beta-spodumene glass-ceramic with 0.7×10^-6/°C thermal expansion coefficient, containing 3.5% lithium oxide for thermal shock resistance
• 1966 – Chile’s CORFO begins analyzing Salar de Atacama brines containing 1,500 mg/L lithium concentration, 5 times higher than other salt flats, with 40% lithium recovery potential
• 1967 – Alcoa develops 2020 lithium-aluminum alloy with 2.7% lithium reducing density 7% while increasing elastic modulus 12%, first used in U.S. Navy A-6 Intruder aircraft
• 1968 – Israel’s Dead Sea Works initiates lithium extraction from end brines containing 15-20 mg/L lithium after potash recovery, producing 200 tons lithium carbonate annually
• 1970 – The FDA approves lithium carbonate (Lithane) for manic-depressive illness treatment at 900-1,200mg daily doses maintaining 0.6-1.2 mEq/L therapeutic blood levels
• 1971 – Princeton Gamma-Tech introduces lithium-drifted silicon detectors with 160 eV resolution at 5.9 keV, enabling energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy with 100-fold improvement over proportional counters
• 1972 – M.S. Whittingham at Exxon develops rechargeable lithium battery using titanium disulfide (TiS2) cathode achieving 2.5V and 480 Wh/kg theoretical energy density with metallic lithium anode
• 1973 – Adam Heller patents lithium-thionyl chloride (Li-SOCl2) primary battery achieving 3.6V and 700 Wh/kg energy density for military communications, operating from -55°C to 85°C
• 1974 – Seiko releases first lithium battery-powered watch using lithium-manganese dioxide coin cell providing 3V for 5-year operation, replacing 1.5V silver oxide batteries
• 1975 – The U.S. military adopts BA-5590/U lithium-sulfur dioxide batteries delivering 7.2Ah at -40°C for AN/PRC-77 radios, providing 3 times capacity of zinc-carbon batteries
• 1976 – John Goodenough’s team at Oxford discovers lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) cathode enabling 4V potential and reversible lithium intercalation with 140 mAh/g practical capacity
• 1977 – Sanyo, Matsushita, and Toshiba begin mass production of lithium-manganese dioxide (Li-MnO2) primary batteries achieving 230 Wh/kg for calculators and cameras
• 1978 – Argentina’s Dirección General de Fabricaciones Militares explores Salar del Hombre Muerto containing 700 mg/L lithium with favorable 0.06 magnesium/lithium ratio for extraction
• 1979 – Moli Energy develops rechargeable AA-size lithium metal batteries with molybdenum disulfide cathodes achieving 85 Wh/kg, targeting portable electronics market
• 1980 – Rachid Yazami at Grenoble demonstrates reversible electrochemical lithium intercalation into graphite forming LiC6 compound with 372 mAh/g theoretical capacity
• 1981 – Global lithium carbonate production reaches 21,400 metric tons with United States producing 38%, Chile 26%, Soviet Union 20%, and China 8% of world supply
• 1982 – The Strategic Defense Initiative evaluates lithium-6 hydride for neutral particle beam weapons and lithium-cooled SP-100 nuclear reactors generating 100kW for space-based platforms
• 1983 – Sony’s D-50 portable CD player uses four AA lithium-manganese dioxide batteries providing 8 hours playback versus 2 hours with alkaline batteries
• 1984 – Sociedad Química y Minera (SQM) begins commercial lithium extraction from Atacama brines using 3,000-hectare solar evaporation ponds concentrating lithium to 6% before processing
• 1985 – Akira Yoshino at Asahi Kasei creates prototype lithium-ion battery combining petroleum coke anode with Goodenough’s LiCoO2 cathode, achieving 200+ charge cycles without degradation
• 1986 – St. Jude Medical’s Ventritex implantable cardioverter-defibrillator uses lithium-silver vanadium oxide battery delivering 30J shocks with 6-year longevity at 37°C body temperature
• 1987 – U.S. forces deploy BA-5847/U lithium-sulfur dioxide batteries rated at -46°C to +71°C for SINCGARS radios during Operation Earnest Will Persian Gulf naval escorts
• 1988 – Hewlett-Packard’s 5071A cesium atomic clock uses lithium vapor at 380°C to increase cesium atom velocity discrimination, achieving 1×10^-13 frequency stability for GPS satellites
• 1989 – Moli Energy recalls 50,000 lithium metal rechargeable batteries after cell venting incidents at >140°C, leading to company bankruptcy and acquisition by NEC
• 1990 – Sony announces CyberShot lithium-ion battery program investing $100 million in Fukushima factory to produce 100,000 cells monthly for camcorders and laptops
• 1991 – Sony releases 18650-size lithium-ion battery (65mm length, 18mm diameter) with LiCoO2 cathode achieving 90 Wh/kg and 500 charge cycles for CCD-TR1 HandyCam
• 1992 – IBM ThinkPad 700C and Apple PowerBook 180 laptops adopt lithium-ion batteries providing 3-4 hours runtime versus 1-2 hours with nickel-cadmium batteries
• 1993 – Bellcore develops lithium polymer batteries using polyethylene oxide electrolyte enabling 1mm thin cells with 150 Wh/kg energy density for credit card-sized devices
• 1994 – Motorola MicroTAC Elite uses lithium-ion battery weighing 88 grams providing 90 minutes talk time, 40% lighter than nickel-metal hydride equivalent
• 1995 – MIT researchers Yet-Ming Chiang and Bart Riley found A123 Systems to commercialize lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) cathodes with 600W/kg power density for power tools
• 1996 – General Motors EV1 uses 1,175 pounds of lead-acid batteries achieving 70-mile range, demonstrating urgent need for lithium battery technology offering 3x energy density
• 1997 – Kodak DC210 digital camera uses lithium-ion battery pack enabling 220 photos per charge versus 20 photos with AA alkaline batteries
• 1998 – China’s Qinghai Salt Lake Industry Group begins extracting lithium from Chaerhan brines containing 240 mg/L lithium, targeting 10,000 tons lithium carbonate annual capacity
• 1999 – Toyota tests Prius hybrid prototype with Panasonic lithium-ion batteries achieving 100 MPGe, though production model uses nickel-metal hydride due to cost
• 2000 – Lithium carbonate prices fall to $1,760/metric ton from oversupply as Chilean production reaches 35,000 tons while global demand remains at 65,000 tons
• 2001 – AeroVironment’s Pointer UAV uses lithium-ion batteries enabling 90-minute flight time at 3-pound total weight for battlefield surveillance in Afghanistan
• 2002 – Land Warrior soldier system adopts BB-2590/U lithium-ion batteries providing 295 Wh at 1.4kg weight for 24-hour missions with night vision and communications
• 2003 – Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning found Tesla Motors planning sports car with 6,831 cylindrical lithium-ion cells providing 53 kWh capacity and 245-mile range
• 2004 – Bolivia’s President Carlos Mesa announces Salar de Uyuni lithium development plans for 10 million tons reserves with 350 mg/L concentration requiring magnesium removal
• 2005 – Lithium-ion batteries achieve 150 Wh/kg commercial energy density using LiCoO2/graphite chemistry with 1C charge rate and 1,000 cycle life at 80% capacity retention
• 2006 – One Laptop per Child XO-1 uses LiFePO4 batteries from A123 Systems surviving 2,000 charge cycles and operating in 50°C African heat without cooling
• 2007 – Apple iPhone uses custom lithium-ion polymer battery with 1,400 mAh capacity in 5.18 Wh configuration, spurring global demand increase of 25% for lithium cobalt oxide
• 2008 – Tesla Roadster launches with 6,831 Panasonic 18650 cells in 11 modules totaling 53 kWh, achieving 244-mile EPA range and 0-60 mph in 3.7 seconds
• 2009 – U.S. Department of Energy awards $2.4 billion in ARRA stimulus grants including $249 million to A123 Systems and $151 million to LG Chem for lithium battery factories
• 2010 – Nissan Leaf debuts with 24 kWh lithium-manganese oxide battery pack using 192 laminated cells from AESC, achieving 73-mile EPA range at $32,780 price
• 2011 – Boeing 787 Dreamliner uses two 63-pound lithium cobalt oxide batteries rated at 29.6V and 76Ah for auxiliary power, replacing nickel-cadmium with 30% weight savings
• 2012 – Tesla Model S 85 kWh version achieves 265-mile EPA range using 7,104 Panasonic NCR18650B cells with silicon-doped anode reaching 250 Wh/kg energy density
• 2013 – Boeing grounds entire 787 fleet after JAL battery thermal runaway at 35,000 feet, implementing ceramic fiber separators and steel containment box modifications
• 2014 – Tesla announces Nevada Gigafactory partnership with Panasonic targeting 35 GWh annual production capacity by 2020, requiring 25,000 tons lithium hydroxide annually
• 2015 – Volkswagen diesel emissions scandal affecting 11 million vehicles accelerates automaker electric vehicle programs, with VW committing $40 billion to lithium battery vehicle development
• 2016 – Global lithium demand reaches 212,000 metric tons LCE (lithium carbonate equivalent) with batteries consuming 46% versus 14% in 2010, surpassing ceramics and glass
• 2017 – China implements New Energy Vehicle quota requiring 10% electric vehicle sales by 2019, driving lithium demand projections to 500,000 tons by 2025
• 2018 – Lithium carbonate spot prices reach $17,000/metric ton in China from $6,500 in 2016, triggering 50+ new mining projects and $4 billion in exploration investment
• 2019 – John Goodenough, Stanley Whittingham, and Akira Yoshino receive Nobel Prize in Chemistry for lithium-ion battery development enabling “rechargeable world” and fossil fuel reduction
• 2020 – European Union designates lithium as critical raw material in Green Deal strategy, targeting 80% battery cell self-sufficiency by 2030 requiring 60,000 tons lithium annually
• 2021 – General Motors announces $35 billion investment in electric vehicles through 2025 with Ultium batteries using NCMA chemistry (90% nickel, 5% cobalt, 4% manganese, 1% aluminum) requiring 600,000 tons lithium by 2030
• 2022 – Russia’s Ukraine invasion disrupts battery supply chains as Russia supplies 6% of global lithium, accelerating Western projects including California’s Salton Sea 300,000 tons/year potential
• 2023 – The Inflation Reduction Act allocates $3.5 billion for domestic lithium processing and $10 billion in manufacturing tax credits requiring 40% North American battery components by 2024
• 2024 – Lilac Solutions and Summit Nanotech achieve commercial direct lithium extraction from brines using ion-exchange reaching 90% recovery in hours versus 18 months for evaporation ponds
• 2025 – QuantumScape and Solid Power begin limited production of solid-state lithium metal batteries achieving 400 Wh/kg energy density for Mercedes-Benz and BMW premium electric vehicles

Final Thoughts

The geopolitical battles being waged over lithium deposits mirror the oil conflicts of the previous century, revealing how a single element can fundamentally reshape the trajectory of human progress and, just as oil’s discovery reshaped geopolitics through the creation of petrostates and the reconfiguration of global power dynamics, lithium is redrawing the world map according to a new geological lottery – the “Lithium Triangle” of Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile holds over half the world’s reserves, while Australia dominates hard-rock production, and China controls 80% of global processing capacity. These geographic realities are forging new alliances, dependencies, and conflicts that will define the 21st century’s international order.

Perhaps most significantly, lithium forces us to confront the material reality underlying our digital age. Every swipe on a touchscreen, every mile driven electrically, every kilowatt-hour of solar energy stored for nighttime use depends on this element—mined from ancient salt flats, refined through energy-intensive processes, and eventually requiring careful recovery and recycling. Lithium reminds us that even our most ethereal technologies rest upon distinctly earthly foundations.

As we stand at this inflection point, with lithium demand projected to increase tenfold by 2030, we witness not just a commodity boom – but a fundamental reorganization of industrial civilization around a new elemental paradigm. The nations and companies that master lithium’s extraction, processing, and application will shape the trajectory of sustainable development, technological innovation, and economic prosperity for generations.

Thanks for reading!