Among all the precious metals known to humanity, platinum holds perhaps the most paradoxical history. For over two millennia, this remarkable element was simultaneously cherished and despised, mastered and misunderstood, depending entirely on which side of the Atlantic Ocean one stood. While pre-Columbian artisans in Ecuador crafted intricate jewelry from platinum using sophisticated techniques that wouldn’t be replicated in Europe for centuries, Spanish conquistadors dismissed the same metal as worthless “platina” – an annoying impurity that contaminated their gold. This stark contrast in perception makes platinum’s story unique among the noble metals.

What sets platinum apart is not just its rarity or its lustrous white sheen, but the extraordinary journey it took from being an accidental inclusion in ancient artifacts to becoming one of the most strategically important materials of the modern world.

Today, this metal that once frustrated colonial miners powers the catalytic converters that clean our air, forms the basis of life-saving cancer treatments, and adorns the fingers of those pledging eternal love. The transformation of platinum from nuisance to necessity spans continents, centuries, and civilizations, weaving together threads of indigenous knowledge, scientific discovery, industrial innovation, and human ambition into a narrative that reflects our evolving relationship with the material world.

Read about the platinum group metals (PGMs) here, and the other critical raw materials (CRMs) here. Find the complete history of all platinum group metals here.

A Complete History Of Platinum: From The Ancient Era To Today

The history of platinum spans over 2,500 years, beginning with its accidental discovery and use by ancient civilizations. The earliest known evidence dates to around 915-780 BCE in Ecuador, where the La Tolita-Tumaco culture developed sophisticated techniques for working with platinum, creating jewelry and ceremonial objects by mixing platinum powder with gold through sintering methods. Ancient Egyptians also unknowingly incorporated platinum into artifacts, including the famous Casket of Thebes (c. 700 BCE). Unlike gold and silver, which were deliberately sought, platinum appeared as an unwanted companion in gold deposits, with ancient metallurgists unable to melt it due to its extremely high melting point.

During the Middle Ages (500-1500 CE), platinum working remained confined entirely to pre-Columbian South America, where indigenous peoples along the Pacific coast of Ecuador and Colombia continued their metallurgical traditions. While European alchemists focused on their seven planetary metals, completely unaware of platinum’s existence, South American artisans created bi-colored jewelry, ritual objects, and sophisticated composite pieces using platinum-gold contrasts. The Manteño culture and others maintained these techniques until Spanish colonization, representing over 2,000 years of continuous platinum working that predated European technology by more than a millennium.

The early modern period (1500-1800) marked platinum’s introduction to European science. Spanish conquistadors first encountered it in South American gold mines, dismissing it as “platina” (little silver) and considering it a worthless impurity. The first European reference came from Julius Caesar Scaliger in 1557, but serious study began with Antonio de Ulloa’s observations during the 1735 French Geodesic Mission to Ecuador. By 1751, Swedish assayer Theophil Scheffer formally recognized platinum as the seventh known element, calling it “white gold.”

A breakthrough came in 1783 when Pierre-François Chabaneau discovered how to purify and produce malleable platinum, initiating Spain’s “platinum age.” This led to remarkable creations, including a platinum chalice for Pope Pius VI in 1788 and King Carlos IV’s “Platinum Room.” France even considered platinum for metric system standards due to its durability, ultimately creating the “Kilogramme des Archives” in platinum in 1799. William Hyde Wollaston’s secret process for commercial platinum production, developed in 1801, would revolutionize the metal’s availability.

The 19th century transformed platinum from a scientific curiosity into an industrial and monetary metal. Russia’s discovery of extensive Ural Mountain deposits in 1819 led to the world’s only platinum currency system (1828-1845), with 3, 6, and 12-ruble coins. The late 1800s saw platinum’s adoption in luxury items, with Fabergé’s Imperial Easter Eggs and Louis Cartier’s pioneering use in fine jewelry. The 1924 discovery of South Africa’s Merensky Reef, containing 75% of world platinum reserves, shifted global production from Russia to South Africa.

The 20th and 21st centuries established platinum as a strategic industrial metal with diverse applications. Both World Wars saw governments restrict platinum use to military purposes. Post-war developments included its use in petroleum refining catalysts (1960s), the discovery of cisplatin’s anti-cancer properties (1968), and most significantly, its adoption in automotive catalytic converters following 1970s emission standards. This industrial demand, combined with investment products like the American Platinum Eagle (1997), drove dramatic price fluctuations, including a 2008 peak of $2,252 per ounce.

The history of platinum can be divided into four distinct phases:

1. Platinum In The Ancient Era (3000 BCE – 500 CE)
2. Platinum In The Middle Ages (500 – 1500)
3. Platinum In The Early-Modern Era (1500-1800)
4. Platinum In The Modern Era (1800 – Present Day)

1. Platinum In The Ancient Era (3000 BCE – 500 CE)

The history of platinum in the ancient world is one of accidental discovery and unintentional use. Unlike gold and silver, which were deliberately sought and refined, platinum appeared as an unwanted companion to other precious metals, particularly in gold deposits. Ancient metallurgists, lacking the technology to identify or properly work with platinum’s extremely high melting point, often viewed it as an impurity or nuisance. Yet despite this lack of understanding, platinum found its way into some of the most significant artifacts of ancient civilizations, from Egyptian burial goods to sophisticated pre-Columbian jewelry, leaving traces that modern science would later identify and marvel at.

Chronology

• c. 915-780 BCE – The earliest known evidence of platinum use discovered at Las Balsas archaeological site near La Tolita, Ecuador, where a sheet of gold was found containing platinum, marking the first documented instance of platinum in human artifacts [1]
• c. 700 BCE – The famous Casket of Thebes created in Upper Egypt, decorated with gold, silver, and platinum hieroglyphs bearing the name of Shepenupet II, an Egyptian princess and Divine Adoratrice of Amun of the 25th Dynasty [1, 2]
• c. 700-600 BCE – Egyptian artisans unknowingly incorporate platinum into gold jewelry and artifacts, with the platinum likely arriving as a natural component in gold ores imported from Nubian mines [3]
• c. 600 BCE – The La Tolita-Tumaco culture begins to develop in the coastal region of Southern Colombia and Northern Ecuador, eventually becoming master metalworkers in gold and platinum [4]
• c. 600 BCE – 200 CE – The La Tolita-Tumaco culture flourishes, creating sophisticated platinum artifacts including nose rings, ceremonial items, and jewelry using advanced techniques including platinum-gold alloys [4, 5]
• c. 500 BCE – 350 CE – Major phases of the Tumaco-La Tolita tradition, during which they develop techniques for working with platinum including the production of extremely fine rectangular wire and bimetallic tumbaga alloys [5]
• c. 325 BCE – La Tolita artisans create very fine rectangular gold wire, approximately 12μ by 40μ in section, possibly made by cutting fine hammered gold foil, demonstrating advanced metalworking skills [6]
• c. 200-400 CE – The La Tolita culture reaches its climax of stylistic maturity, establishing villages centered around plazas with earthen mounds (tolas) and creating elaborate platinum-gold artifacts [7]
• c. 100 BCE – Native South Americans in areas near modern-day Esmeraldas, Ecuador begin producing artifacts of white gold-platinum alloy for ceremonial purposes [3]
• c. 100 BCE – 100 CE – Pre-Columbian cultures create platinum nose rings and other ceremonial items by hammering grains of alluvial platinum or platinum-gold alloys [8]
• c. 1st centuries BCE/CE – Researchers determine that pre-Columbian nose rings and ceremonial items from northern Ecuador were fashioned by hammering grains of alluvial platinum [8]
• 200 CE – The La Tolita culture’s major production of platinum artifacts ends, though some archaeological evidence suggests the culture may have continued until 350-600 CE [4, 9]
• c. 350 CE – Decline of the major phases of the Tumaco-La Tolita tradition, though some archaeologists argue the culture endured until 600 CE in diminished form [8]
• c. 400-500 CE – Late period platinum working continues in Ecuador region, with techniques for platinum plating on gold pendants involving 25 μm thick foil of platinum grains sintered with gold-silver alloy [6]

2. Platinum In The Middle Ages (500 – 1500)

The medieval period saw platinum existing in three distinct contexts: as trace contaminants in ancient artifacts predating the Middle Ages, as an actively worked metal in pre-Columbian South America, and as an entirely unknown substance in medieval Europe. While European alchemists devoted themselves to understanding their seven planetary metals, indigenous peoples of Ecuador and Colombia had already mastered sophisticated techniques for working with platinum, creating a striking contrast in metallurgical knowledge between the Old and New Worlds.

Chronology

• 500 CE – Tumaco-La Tolita culture continues producing platinum artifacts in coastal Ecuador, including masks, ornaments, and jewelry using sophisticated sintering techniques mixing platinum powder with gold [1]
• 500 – 1500 CE – During the entire Middle Ages, South American platinum working remains the only intentional use of this metal worldwide, predating European platinum technology by over 1,200 years [15]
• 500 – 700 CE – Transition period of the La Tolita culture sees gradual depopulation of coastal regions while platinum-working knowledge persists in scattered communities along Ecuador’s Pacific coast [1]
• 500 – 1500 CE – Throughout the Middle Ages, platinum deposits in Colombia’s Chocó region and Ecuador’s Esmeraldas province provide raw material for indigenous metallurgy [7]
• 600 – 800 CE – Indigenous metallurgists in Ecuador create bi-colored jewelry pieces using platinum-gold contrast, with platinum eyes on golden masks and ornamental objects featuring platinum inlays [2]
• 700 CE – Manteño culture emerges in coastal Ecuador, inheriting metallurgical traditions including platinum working, as evidenced by black pottery production marking their cultural beginnings [3]
• 700 – 1500 CE – The Carchi-Nariño culture in northern Ecuador works with tumbaga (gold-copper alloy) and continues traditions of precious metal working, potentially including platinum techniques [2]
• 800 – 1000 CE – Pre-Columbian artisans produce platinum-decorated ritual objects and personal ornaments, including nose rings, ear ornaments, and facial decorations using non-melting platinum techniques [4]
• 800 – 1500 CE – The La Tolita metallurgical legacy influences surrounding cultures, spreading platinum-working knowledge along Pacific coast trade networks [13]
• 900 – 1100 CE – Indigenous peoples of coastal Ecuador maintain platinum sintering technology, creating objects by mixing platinum dust with gold at temperatures below platinum’s melting point [5]
• 1000 – 1200 CE – Manteño metallurgists continue working precious metals along Ecuador’s coast, producing sophisticated jewelry and ceremonial objects as part of their maritime trading culture [6]
• 1000 – 1500 CE – Archaeological evidence from sites like Cerro Jaboncillo and La Tolita island reveals continuous occupation and metalworking activity throughout the late Middle Ages [14]
• 1100 – 1300 CE – South American platinum artifacts include small lead spheres inlaid with platinum, demonstrating advanced composite metalworking techniques unique in the world [7]
• 1200 – 1400 CE – Coastal Ecuadorian cultures produce extremely fine rectangular platinum-gold wire, achieving metalworking precision unmatched elsewhere globally during this period [8]
• 1300 – 1500 CE – Indigenous peoples near Esmeraldas, Ecuador continue producing artifacts using white gold-platinum alloys, maintaining metallurgical traditions dating back over 1,500 years [9]
• 1400 – 1500 CE – Manteño culture at its height controls maritime trade routes while continuing to work with precious metals including platinum in ceremonial and trade contexts [10]
• 1450 – 1500 CE – Final pre-contact period sees South American platinum working traditions still active, with techniques for granulation, soldering, and platinum-gold foil plating [5]
• 1492 CE – Columbus reaches the Americas, initiating contact that would eventually lead to European discovery of platinum, though the metal remains unknown to conquistadors [11]
• 1500 CE – End of Middle Ages finds platinum working confined to indigenous South American contexts, with 2,000 years of continuous metallurgical tradition about to encounter European colonization [1]
• 1500 – 1531 CE – Manteño and other Ecuadorian cultures continue platinum working until Spanish conquest, with conquistadors later reporting indigenous people wearing delicate platinum-plated jewelry [12]

3. Platinum In The Early-Modern Era (1500-1800)

The early-modern period witnessed platinum’s transformation from an unknown metal to a recognized precious element. Initially encountered by Spanish conquistadors in South American gold mines, platinum was regarded as a worthless impurity. However, through the efforts of scientists, metallurgists, and enlightened monarchs across Europe, platinum gradually gained recognition for its unique properties and eventually achieved status as a noble metal worthy of royal patronage.

Chronology

• 1557 – Julius Caesar Scaliger, an Italian-French scientist, made the first European reference to platinum in his writings, describing an unknown noble metal found in Mexican mines “that could not be melted” by any technique known at the time [1, 2, 3].
• 1735 – Antonio de Ulloa, a Spanish naval officer and scientist, encountered platinum while on the French Geodesic Mission to Ecuador, finding it in gold mines along the Pinto River in Peru [4, 5, 6].
• 1736 – Antonio de Ulloa and Don Jorge Juan y Santacilia discovered platinum ore deposits in Colombia and Peru during their eight-year scientific expedition [7, 8].
• 1741 – Charles Wood, a British metallurgist, found platinum samples that had been smuggled from Cartagena to Jamaica and sent them to William Brownrigg for further investigation [9, 10, 11].
• 1748 – Antonio de Ulloa published his “Relación histórica del viaje a la América Meridional” containing the first detailed scientific description of platinum, describing it as “neither separable nor calcinable” [12, 13, 14].
• 1750 – William Brownrigg presented a detailed account of platinum to the Royal Society of London, stating he had seen no mention of it in any previous accounts of known minerals [15, 16, 17].
• 1751 – Theophil Scheffer, a Swedish assayer, formally recognized platinum as the seventh known element and declared it a precious metal, calling it “white gold” [18, 19, 20].
• 1752 – Henrik Theophil Scheffer published his paper “The White Gold, or 7th Metal” to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, establishing platinum’s status as a distinct metal [21].
• 1757 – William Lewis published “Experimental Examination of Platina” in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, presenting one of the first comprehensive studies of platinum’s physical and chemical properties [22].
• 1758 – Claude Morin published “La Platine, l’Or Blanc ou le Huitième Métal” in Paris, one of the first extended reports on the study of platinum [23].
• 1770s – Various European chemists including Andreas Sigismund Marggraf in Berlin and Pierre Joseph Macquer in Paris began intensive studies of platinum’s properties [24].
• 1778 – King Louis XVI of France declared platinum “the only metal fit for kings” after his jeweler Marc-Etienne Janety fashioned several platinum pieces for him [25, 26, 27].
• 1783 – Pierre-François Chabaneau, a French chemist working in Spain, discovered the means to purify platinum and produce it in malleable form [28, 29, 30].
• 1786 – Chabaneau successfully produced a 10 cm cube of pure malleable platinum after months of frustration, marking the beginning of the “platinum age in Spain”; The Elhuyar brothers announced their discovery of tungsten (wolfram) at the Royal Seminary of Bergara, where platinum research was also being conducted [31, 32, 33].
• 1788 – Francisco Alonso crafted a platinum chalice weighing nearly two kilograms for Pope Pius VI, commissioned by King Charles III of Spain [34, 35, 36].
• 1789 – Pierre-François Chabaneau’s purified platinum was used to create the famous chalice presented to Pope Pius VI, the first major platinum religious artifact [37, 38].
• 1790s – King Carlos IV of Spain commissioned the creation of a “Platinum Room” at the royal palace in Aranjuez, featuring hardwood encrusted with platinum [39, 40].
• 1795 – The French Republic established the metric system, though platinum (not gold or silver) was initially considered for the standard kilogram due to its durability and resistance to corrosion [41, 42].
• 1796 – Marc-Etienne Janety, formerly Louis XVI’s Royal Goldsmith, returned to Paris after the Revolution to create the official kilogram and meter measures in platinum [43].
• 1799 – The “Kilogramme des Archives” was manufactured in platinum as the mass standard for France, replacing earlier provisional standards [44, 45].
• 1801 – William Hyde Wollaston developed a secret process for producing malleable platinum on a commercial scale in England [46, 47, 48].
• 1802 – Wollaston discovered palladium while analyzing platinum ore residues, though he kept this discovery anonymous initially [49, 50].
• 1803 – Wollaston began commercial production of malleable platinum, which would earn him a fortune of approximately 30,000 pounds over the next 20 years [51, 52].
• 1804 – Wollaston discovered rhodium, another platinum group metal, while continuing his analysis of platinum ore [53, 54].

4. Platinum In The Modern Era (1800 – Present Day)

The modern history of platinum began with its scientific isolation in the early 1800s, transforming from a curiosity dismissed as “platina” or “little silver” by Spanish colonizers into one of the world’s most valuable and strategically important metals. Over the past two centuries, platinum has evolved from a metal that was nearly impossible to work with into an essential component of catalytic converters, cancer treatments, fine jewelry, and investment portfolios, with its journey marked by scientific breakthroughs, industrial innovations, and dramatic shifts in global supply and demand.

Chronology

• 1803 – William Hyde Wollaston discovers a process for making platinum malleable, effectively opening the door to platinum’s extensive commercial applications [1]
• 1819 – Platinum deposits are discovered in the Ural Mountains in Russia [2]
• 1822 – Extensive platinum deposits are discovered in the Ural Mountains, Russia, making Russia a major platinum producer [3]
• 1824 – Mining of platinum deposits begins in the Ural Mountains, Russia [4]
• 1825 – The British Royal Mint experiments with platinum coins, producing trial coins including a platinum farthing [5]
• 1828 – Russia begins minting the world’s first platinum coins for circulation, starting with 3-ruble coins at the Sankt Petersburg mint [6]
• 1829 – Russia adds 6-ruble platinum coins to circulation [6]
• 1830 – Russia introduces 12-ruble platinum coins, completing the series of platinum currency [6]
• 1845 – Russia discontinues platinum coinage on June 22, ending the only instance of platinum being used as regular national currency [7]
• 1880s – Platinum is discovered in Ontario, Canada’s nickel-copper ores [8]
• 1885 – The first Fabergé Imperial Easter Egg, the Hen Egg, is created for Tsar Alexander III, marking the beginning of platinum’s use in luxury decorative arts [9]
• Late 1890s – New high-temperature blowtorches make it possible to work platinum into fine jewelry on a commercial scale [10]
• 1899 – Louis Cartier becomes the first jeweler to successfully use platinum in jewelry on a large scale, revolutionizing jewelry design [11]
• 1900 – The Trans-Siberian Railway Fabergé egg features a miniature train made of gold and platinum, showcasing platinum’s use in decorative arts [12]
• Early 1900s – Cartier in Paris and Tiffany & Co. in New York lead the adoption of platinum in fine jewelry, making it a status symbol [10]
• 1906 – William Bettel provides the first authenticated scientific report of platinum occurrence in the Bushveld Complex, South Africa [13]
• 1912 – Evalyn Walsh McLean has the Hope Diamond reset in a platinum setting surrounded by diamonds [14]
• 1914 – The Fabergé Mosaic Egg is created with a platinum shell set with diamonds and colored gemstones [15]
• 1917 – The British government takes control of all platinum as a strategic material during World War I [16]
• 1918 – The U.S. government prohibits the use of platinum for jewelry during World War I [16]
• 1920s – South Africa becomes an important platinum producer after a farmer discovers the metal in a riverbed [8]
• 1924 – Hans Merensky discovers the Merensky Reef in South Africa’s Bushveld Complex, which contains 75% of the world’s known platinum reserves; Russia’s platinum production ends with the closure of the Ural mines after the Russian Revolution [6, 17]
• 1926 – The Merensky Reef is traced for approximately 150 kilometers, establishing South Africa as the world’s primary platinum source [17]
• 1940s – During World War II, the U.S. government declares platinum a strategic metal and bans its use in all non-military applications [18]
• 1950s – Large-scale mining of the Merensky Reef begins as demand for platinum group metals increases [17]
• 1960s – Platinum begins to be widely used in petroleum refining catalysts [19]
• 1968 – The anti-cancer properties of cisplatin are discovered, leading to its development as a chemotherapy drug [20]
• 1970s – Platinum use in automotive catalytic converters begins as emission standards are introduced; Development of techniques to extract platinum from the UG2 chromitite layer in South Africa expands reserves [17, 21]
• 1975 – The U.S. introduces regulations forcing the installation of catalytic converters on gasoline vehicles, dramatically increasing platinum demand [22]
• 1977 – The Soviet Union begins producing commemorative platinum coins for the 1980 Moscow Olympics [23]
• 1978 – Cisplatin is approved by the U.S. FDA for cancer treatment on December 19 [20]
• 1979 – Cisplatin is approved for medical use in the UK and several other European countries [20]
• 1980 – Arab Oil Embargo and economic factors cause platinum prices to reach then-record highs [24]
• 1983 – Pediatric oncologist Roger Packer incorporates cisplatin into treatment protocols for childhood medulloblastoma, dramatically improving survival rates; Various countries begin regular minting of investment-grade platinum coins [5, 20]
• 1988 – The Royal Canadian Mint and Australian Perth Mint begin producing platinum bullion coins (Platinum Maple Leaf and Platinum Koala) [25]
• 1992 – The Russian Federation begins issuing platinum commemorative coins, continuing through 1996 [26]
• 1997 – The United States Mint launches the American Platinum Eagle bullion coin program, the first platinum coins ever issued by the U.S. [27]
• 2000 – Palladium shortage causes price spike, leading to increased interest in platinum as a substitute in catalytic converters [28]
• 2001 – Platinum reaches approximately $600 per ounce amid precious metals rally following September 11 attacks [24]
• 2007 – The U.S. Mint releases the American Eagle 10th Anniversary Platinum Coin Set with special reverse proof finish [29]
• 2008 – Platinum reaches all-time high of $2,252 per ounce in March due to South African power crisis affecting mining; The U.S. Mint discontinues fractional platinum Eagle denominations due to the financial crisis [29, 30]
• 2009 – The Hope Diamond is temporarily displayed in a new platinum setting designed by Harry Winston for its 50th anniversary at the Smithsonian [14]
• 2010 – Scientists detect boron in the Hope Diamond while it is removed from its platinum setting for analysis [14]
• 2013 – Estonia issues a platinum coin to commemorate its anniversary [5]
• 2015 – The U.S. Mint suspends production of bullion Platinum Eagles due to insufficient blank supplies [29]
• 2016 – The Austrian Mint begins producing platinum bullion coins [25]
• 2017 – The U.S. Mint releases a special 20th anniversary Platinum Eagle design [29]
• 2018 – The Royal Mint begins producing platinum bullion coins [25]
• 2019 – Platinum trades below gold for extended period, spurring substitution discussions in automotive industry [21]
• 2020 – COVID-19 pandemic causes temporary disruption to South African platinum mining operations [28]
• 2021 – Renewed interest in platinum for hydrogen fuel cell technology drives investment demand [30]
• 2022 – Platinum records 9% year-to-date gain, outperforming other precious metals [31]
• 2023 – World Platinum Investment Council predicts platinum deficit as demand grows 19% while supply increases only 2% [31]
• 2024 – Centenary celebrations held for Hans Merensky’s 1924 discovery of the Merensky Reef [32]
• 2025 – Platinum continues to play crucial role in green hydrogen economy and emissions reduction technologies [21]

Final Thoughts

As we stand in 2025, platinum’s journey from the pre-Columbian workshops of coastal Ecuador to the cutting-edge laboratories developing hydrogen fuel cells represents far more than a timeline of metallurgical advancement. It embodies humanity’s capacity to revise our understanding of value itself. The Spanish colonizers who discarded platinum as worthless could never have imagined that this “little silver” would one day command prices exceeding gold, or that it would become essential to technologies they couldn’t conceive of – from chemotherapy drugs that save millions of lives to catalytic converters that protect our atmosphere.

Perhaps most remarkably, platinum’s story reminds us that innovation doesn’t always flow from the expected centers of power – the La Tolita-Tumaco culture’s sophisticated sintering techniques, developed over a thousand years before European science could even identify platinum as a distinct element, challenge our assumptions about technological progress.

As we face contemporary challenges requiring new materials and methods, platinum’s history suggests we should look not just forward to undiscovered elements or synthetic compounds, but also backward and outward – to traditional knowledge systems and unexpected sources of wisdom. In an age where platinum enables both sustainable energy solutions and advanced medical treatments, its past teaches us that today’s overlooked material or dismissed technique might hold tomorrow’s key to human progress.

Appendix:

Platinum In The Ancient Era References

[1] Marcellin Berthelot platinum analysis of Casket of Thebes 1901 – https://www.jewelpedia.net/the-history-of-platinum/

[2] The History of Platinum origins and 18th century recognition – https://blog.stuller.com/platinum-metal-history/

[3] Ancient Egyptian and pre-Columbian platinum use – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum

[4] Tumaco-La Tolita culture platinum metallurgy 600 BCE-200 CE – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumaco-La_Tolita_culture

[5] La Tolita-Tumaco master metalsmiths scholarly analysis – https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/latin-american-antiquity/article/abs/la-tolitatumaco-culture-master-metalsmiths-in-gold-and-platinum/93BD10270762B074913EBBD01F44C610

[6] Pre-Columbian fine gold wire production techniques – https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259908879_The_La_Tolita-Tumaco_Culture_Master_Metalsmiths_in_Gold_and_Platinum

[7] La Tolita cultural development and village structures – https://www.oakridgeauctiongallery.com/post/la-tolita-tumaco-fragments-of-identity

[8] Tumaco-La Tolita chronology and decline – https://vilcek.org/art/tumaco-la-tolita-head-fragment-with-perforated-labret/

Platinum In The Middle Ages References

[1] Tumaco-La Tolita culture – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumaco-La_Tolita_culture

[2] Pre-Columbian History of Ecuador – https://www.carlosvstudios.com/post/pre-columbian-history-of-ecuador

[3] Manteño – https://orias.berkeley.edu/resources-teachers/societies-americas/mante%C3%B1o

[4] La Tolita – The Artistic Adventure of Mankind – https://arsartisticadventureofmankind.wordpress.com/tag/la-tolita/

[5] The La Tolita-Tumaco Culture: Master Metalsmiths in Gold and Platinum – https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/latin-american-antiquity/article/abs/la-tolitatumaco-culture-master-metalsmiths-in-gold-and-platinum/93BD10270762B074913EBBD01F44C610

[6] Manteño Culture – https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100131975

[7] The La Tolita-Tumaco Culture: Master Metalsmiths in Gold and Platinum – https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259908879_The_La_Tolita-Tumaco_Culture_Master_Metalsmiths_in_Gold_and_Platinum

[8] THE LA TOLITA–TUMACO CULTURE: MASTER METALSMITHS IN GOLD AND PLATINUM – https://www.academia.edu/6698631/THE_LA_TOLITA_TUMACO_CULTURE_MASTER_METALSMITHS_IN_GOLD_AND_PLATINUM

[9] Platinum – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum

[10] Manteño – https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/manteno

[11] The History and Uses of Platinum in Human Culture – https://www.providentmetals.com/knowledge-center/collectible-coins/platinum-history.html

[12] Tumaco-Tolita gold figurine – https://www.livescience.com/archaeology/tumaco-tolita-gold-figurine-a-2-000-year-old-statue-with-a-fancy-nose-ornament-from-a-vanished-south-american-culture

[13] La Tolita – https://www.britannica.com/place/La-Tolita

[14] 2018 Manteño Geography and Culture – https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341026412_2018_Manteno_Geography_and_Culture

[15] Metals of antiquity – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metals_of_antiquity

Platinum In The Early-Modern Era References

[1] The History of Platinum – https://www.thenaturalsapphirecompany.com/education/history-precious-metals/the-history-of-platinum/

[2] Facts About Platinum – https://www.garfieldrefining.com/resources/blog/3-fun-facts-about-platinum/

[3] What Is Platinum? – https://www.allthescience.org/what-is-platinum.htm

[4] Antonio de Ulloa was born – https://edu.rsc.org/resources/on-this-day-jan-12–antonio-de-ulloa-was-born/10112.article

[5] Antonio de Ulloa – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_de_Ulloa

[6] Antonio de Ulloa: the Discoverer of Platinum? – https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/science/leading-figures/antonio-de-ulloa-the-discoverer-of-platinum/

[7] History – Platinum: Element 78 – https://thenoblemetal.weebly.com/history.html

[8] January 12, 1716 – Birth of Antonio de Ulloa – https://rinconeducativo.org/en/anniversaries/january-12-1716-birth-antonio-ulloa-torre-giralt-discoverer-platinum/

[9] Charles Wood (ironmaster) – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wood_(ironmaster)

[10] About Charles Wood: British ironmaster – https://peoplepill.com/people/charles-wood

[11] Who Discovered Platinum – https://wanttoknowit.com/who-discovered-platinum/

[12] Antonio de Ulloa – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_de_Ulloa

[13] Antonio de Ulloa y de la Torre-Giralt – https://rinconeducativo.org/en/recursos-educativos/antonio-de-ulloa-y-de-la-torre-giralt-descubridor-del-platino/

[14] Antonio De Ulloa – Encyclopedia.com – https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/us-history-biographies/antonio-de-ulloa

[15] William Brownrigg – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Brownrigg

[16] William Brownrigg – https://www.whitehavenandwesternlakeland.co.uk/people/brownrigg.htm

[17] Dr William Brownrigg, F. R. S. – https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.1977.0016

[18] The History of Platinum – https://www.thenaturalsapphirecompany.com/education/history-precious-metals/the-history-of-platinum/

[19] WebElements Periodic Table » Platinum » uses – https://www.webelements.com/platinum/uses.html

[20] A Quick Look at Platinum Metal History – https://blog.stuller.com/platinum-metal-history/

[21] Educational Video – Platinum: The Rarest Precious Metal – https://sprott.com/insights/platinum-the-rarest-precious-metal/

[22] Historical Reading List: Platinum from the Ural Mountains – https://www.gia.edu/platinum-from-ural-mountains-russia-reading-list

[23] Historical Reading List: Platinum from the Ural Mountains – https://www.gia.edu/platinum-from-ural-mountains-russia-reading-list

[24] Swedish Contributions to the Discovery of Platinum – https://www.technology.matthey.com/article/24/1/31-39/

[25] History of platinum – Men of Platinum – https://menofplatinum.com/history-of-platinum/

[26] A Quick Look at Platinum Metal History – https://blog.stuller.com/platinum-metal-history/

[27] Heavy Metal: The History of Platinum Jewellery – https://www.katerinaperez.com/articles/history-of-platinum-jewellery

[28] Pierre-François Chabaneau – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-François_Chabaneau

[29] The History of Platinum – https://www.thenaturalsapphirecompany.com/education/history-precious-metals/the-history-of-platinum/

[30] Rhodium vs Platinum: The Key Differences – https://www.guestmagazines.co.uk/rhodium-vs-platinum-the-key-differences/

[31] Pierre-François Chabaneau – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-François_Chabaneau

[32] Platinum – Antique Jewelry University – https://www.langantiques.com/university/platinum-2/

[33] Tungsten: an extraordinary discovery – https://www.laboratorium.eus/en/tungsten-extraordinary-discovery-elhuyar-brothers

[34] The Platinum Chalice of Pope Pius VI – https://technology.matthey.com/content/journals/10.1595/003214060X426869

[35] Where Is Platinum Found In Nature? – https://theprimeasset.com/learn/where-is-platinum-found-in-nature/

[36] The Chalices of Papal Artifacts – https://www.papalartifacts.com/the-chalices-of-papal-artifacts/

[37] P. F. Chabaneau – Britannica – https://www.britannica.com/biography/P-F-Chabaneau

[38] The History of Platinum – https://www.thenaturalsapphirecompany.com/education/history-precious-metals/the-history-of-platinum/

[39] History of platinum – Men of Platinum – https://menofplatinum.com/history-of-platinum/

[40] Royal Palace of Aranjuez – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Palace_of_Aranjuez

[41] International Prototype of the Kilogram – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Prototype_of_the_Kilogram

[42] Kilogram – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilogram

[43] A Quick Look at Platinum Metal History – https://blog.stuller.com/platinum-metal-history/

[44] Kilogram – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilogram

[45] Kilogram – wikidoc – https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Kilogram

[46] William Hyde Wollaston – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston

[47] William Hyde Wollaston – Britannica – https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Hyde-Wollaston

[48] The Platinum Notebooks of William Hyde Wollaston – https://technology.matthey.com/article/22/3/100-106/

[49] William Hyde Wollaston – Linda Hall Library – https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/william-hyde-wollaston/

[50] William Hyde Wollaston – Encyclopedia.com – https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/science-and-technology/chemistry-biographies/william-hyde-wollaston

[51] Dictionary of National Biography/Wollaston, William Hyde – https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Wollaston,_William_Hyde_(DNB00)

[52] William Cary and His Association with William Hyde Wollaston – https://www.technology.matthey.com/article/23/3/112-123

[53] William Hyde Wollaston – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston

[54] William Hyde Wollaston – The Platinum Group Metals – https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236233014_William_Hyde_Wollaston_-_The_Platinum_Group_Metals_and_other_Discoveries

Platinum In The Modern Era References

[1] The History of Platinum – https://www.thenaturalsapphirecompany.com/education/history-precious-metals/the-history-of-platinum/

[2] History of platinum – Men of Platinum – https://menofplatinum.com/history-of-platinum/

[3] Platinum – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum

[4] An Extremely Rare Platinum Russian Coin Graded by PCGS – https://coinweek.com/an-extremely-rare-platinum-russian-coin-graded-by-pcgs/

[5] Platinum coin – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum_coin

[6] Platinum coins of the Russian Empire – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum_coins_of_the_Russian_Empire

[7] An Extremely Rare Platinum Russian Coin Graded by PCGS – https://www.pcgs.com/news/extremely-rare-platinum-russian-coin-graded-by-pcgs

[8] The History and Uses of Platinum in Human Culture | Provident – https://www.providentmetals.com/knowledge-center/collectible-coins/platinum-history.html

[9] Fabergé Imperial Eggs – Discover the Legendary Collection – https://www.faberge.com/pages/the-imperial-eggs

[10] A Quick Look at Platinum Metal History – Stuller Blog – https://blog.stuller.com/platinum-metal-history/

[11] History of platinum – Men of Platinum – https://menofplatinum.com/history-of-platinum/

[12] Trans-Siberian Railway (Fabergé egg) – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway_(Fabergé_egg)

[13] Centenary of the Discovery of Platinum in the Bushveld Complex – https://technology.matthey.com/article/50/3/130-133/

[14] Hope Diamond – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope_Diamond

[15] A Gallery of Fabergé Eggs – World History Encyclopedia – https://www.worldhistory.org/collection/123/a-gallery-of-faberge-eggs/24/

[16] War and Jewellery: Part III – WWI – https://navettejewellery.org/2022/03/23/war-and-jewellery-part-iii-wwi/

[17] Merensky Reef – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merensky_Reef

[18] The U.S. is Desperately Short of These 3 Critical Metals – https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/the-us-is-desperately-short-of-these-3-critical-metals-301012275.html

[19] The History of Platinum – Gerrards Bullion – https://gerrardsbullion.com/learn/the-history-of-platinum/

[20] Cisplatin – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisplatin

[21] Catalytic converter – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converter

[22] The evolution of catalytic converters – RSC Education – https://edu.rsc.org/feature/the-evolution-of-catalytic-converters/2020252.article

[23] Platinum coins of the Russian Federation – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum_coins_of_the_Russian_Federation

[24] Historic Gold, Silver, Platinum, & Palladium Price Spikes – https://www.jmbullion.com/investing-guide/pricing-payments/historic-gold-silver-platinum-palladium-price-spikes/

[25] The History of Platinum Coins Being Used as Money – https://atlantagoldandcoin.com/the-history-of-platinum-coins-being-used-as-money/

[26] Platinum coins of Russia – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum_coins_of_Russia

[27] 1997 American Platinum Eagle – https://platinumeagleguide.com/1997-platinum-eagle/

[28] Platinum vs. Palladium: What’s driving auto catalyst switch? – https://capital.com/platinum-vs-palladium-what-s-driving-auto-catalyst-switch

[29] American Platinum Eagle – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Platinum_Eagle

[30] The Rise And Fall Of Platinum And Palladium – https://www.investing.com/analysis/the-rise-and-fall-of-platinum-and-palladium-200601542

[31] Platinum price on pace for 20% quarterly gain – https://www.mining.com/platinum-price-on-pace-for-20-quarterly-gain-its-biggest-since-2008/

[32] Merensky Reef Centenary (2024) – GSSA – https://www.gssa.org.za/?page_id=7330