In the depths of the Deccan Plateau, along the banks of ancient rivers, early humans stumbled upon crystals unlike any they had seen before. These stones, formed billions of years beneath the Earth’s surface under unimaginable pressure and heat, would captivate humanity for the next five millennia. The story of diamonds is far more than a tale of geology or commerce—it is a mirror reflecting our deepest aspirations, our capacity for both wonder and exploitation, and our relentless pursuit of beauty and permanence in an impermanent world.

From their initial discovery in India around 3000 BCE to today’s global industry worth billions, diamonds have witnessed the rise and fall of empires, sparked colonial conquests, funded wars, and symbolized eternal love. They have been hoarded by maharajas, worn by Roman senators, smuggled by adventurers, and marketed to middle-class couples saving for engagement rings. Each facet of a cut diamond reflects not just light, but centuries of human ambition, innovation, and desire.

This comprehensive chronicle traces the diamond‘s journey through four distinct eras: from ancient India’s monopoly that lasted nearly 4,000 years, through medieval Europe’s discovery of cutting techniques that transformed rough stones into brilliant gems, to the colonial exploitation of Brazil and South Africa that industrialized the trade, and finally to our modern era of synthetic diamonds, ethical sourcing movements, and the slow unraveling of the De Beers monopoly. It is a story that encompasses advanced ancient metallurgy, Renaissance craftsmanship, Victorian engineering, and 20th-century marketing genius—all centered around a crystallized form of carbon that, by quirks of chemistry and physics, happens to be the hardest naturally occurring substance on Earth.

As you journey through these meticulously documented millennia, you’ll discover how a 15-year-old farm boy’s casual find near South Africa’s Orange River transformed global economics, how a copywriter’s three-word slogan became perhaps the most successful marketing campaign in history, and how modern technology has finally achieved the alchemist’s dream of creating these precious stones in laboratories. This is not merely the history of a gemstone, but a chronicle of human civilization itself, told through the prism of our eternal fascination with these extraordinary crystals.

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A Complete History Of Diamonds: From The Ancient Era To Today

The history of diamonds spans over 5,000 years, beginning in ancient India around 3000 BCE. For more than three millennia, India remained the world’s sole source of these precious gems, with diamonds discovered in alluvial deposits along the Krishna, Godavari, and Penner rivers in the Deccan region. Ancient Indian civilizations developed sophisticated systems for valuing and trading diamonds, with the Mahajanapada Empire establishing standardized measurements using the Tandula (equivalent to a grain of rice) as the base unit. By the first century CE, diamonds had become highly prized in the Roman Empire, with Pliny the Elder declaring them “the most valuable of all things in this world.” The diamond trade flourished through established routes connecting India with Rome, China, and other civilizations, with Romans reportedly spending 100 million sesterces annually on Indian luxury goods.

During the Middle Ages (500-1500 CE), the diamond trade underwent significant transformation. As the Roman Empire declined, Arab traders gained control of Indian Ocean trade routes, becoming crucial intermediaries in transporting diamonds from Indian mines to Middle Eastern markets. The Crusades introduced Europeans to Eastern luxuries, sparking renewed interest in these gems. A revolutionary change occurred in 1330 when Venice became the first European city to develop diamond cutting techniques, followed by the establishment of cutting centers in Bruges, Antwerp, and other major trading cities. The most significant innovation came around 1475 with the invention of the scaif (diamond polishing wheel), which enabled precise faceting and transformed diamonds from dark, mysterious stones into brilliant gems. This period also witnessed the birth of the diamond engagement ring tradition when Archduke Maximilian of Austria gave Mary of Burgundy a ring featuring diamonds arranged in the shape of an ‘M’ in 1477.

The Early-Modern Era (1500-1800) marked a dramatic shift in the global diamond trade. Portuguese explorers established direct sea routes to India, bypassing traditional Middle Eastern intermediaries and revolutionizing commerce. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a French merchant who made six voyages to India between 1630 and 1668, became the era’s most influential diamond trader, purchasing famous stones including the blue diamond that would later become the Hope Diamond. The period saw the development of increasingly sophisticated cutting techniques, evolving from simple table cuts to complex brilliant designs like the Mazarin Cut with 17 crown facets. The most significant change came between 1714 and 1725 when diamonds were discovered in Brazil, ending India’s monopoly that had lasted for thousands of years. Brazilian mines quickly became so productive that diamond prices dropped by 75% due to oversupply.

The modern diamond era began with the South African discoveries of the 1860s, starting with 15-year-old Erasmus Jacobs finding the Eureka Diamond near the Orange River in 1866. These discoveries triggered a diamond rush that would transform the global industry. Cecil Rhodes capitalized on this opportunity, establishing De Beers Mining Company in 1880 and consolidating control through mergers until De Beers controlled approximately 90% of world diamond production by 1888. The company’s strategy of controlling supply to maintain prices became the template for the industry. South African mines yielded extraordinary stones, including the Cullinan Diamond discovered in 1905 – at 3,106 carats, it remains the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found.

The 20th century brought both technological innovation and masterful marketing to the diamond industry. Scientists achieved a long-sought goal when they created the first synthetic diamonds in the 1950s, with Swedish company ASEA succeeding in 1953 and General Electric announcing commercially viable production in 1954. However, the century’s most lasting impact came from marketing rather than mining. In 1939, De Beers launched a campaign with N.W. Ayer & Son to increase demand for diamond engagement rings in the United States. This culminated in 1947 with Frances Gerety’s creation of the slogan “A Diamond is Forever,” later recognized as the greatest advertising slogan of the 20th century. This campaign successfully transformed diamonds from aristocratic luxuries into symbols of middle-class romantic commitment.

The late 20th and early 21st centuries have seen dramatic geographic and ethical shifts in the diamond industry. New major sources emerged, including the Argyle Mine in Australia (1985), which became the world’s largest source of rare pink diamonds, and multiple mines in Canada starting with Ekati in 1998. These discoveries helped break De Beers’ monopoly, with their market share falling from 90% in 1988 to 63% by 2000. The industry has also grappled with ethical concerns, particularly regarding “conflict diamonds” used to finance wars in Africa. The 2006 film “Blood Diamond” raised public awareness about these issues, leading to increased demand for ethical sourcing and transparency. Today’s diamond industry balances traditional luxury marketing with growing consumer demands for sustainability and ethical practices, while new technologies like lab-grown diamonds challenge the market dynamics that have existed for over a century.

The history of diamonds can be divided into four distinct phases:

1. Diamonds In The Ancient Era (3000 BCE – 500 CE)
2. Diamonds In The Middle Ages (500 – 1500)
3. Diamonds In The Early-Modern Era (1500-1800)
4. Diamonds In The Modern Era (1800 – Present Day)

1. Diamonds In The Ancient Era (3000 BCE – 500 CE)

The history of diamonds in the ancient era represents one of humanity’s longest-standing relationships with precious stones. For over three millennia, from approximately 3000 BCE to 500 CE, India stood as the world’s sole source of these extraordinary gems, establishing trade networks, valuation systems, and cultural significances that would echo through the ages. This period witnessed the evolution of diamond appreciation from their initial discovery in alluvial deposits to their integration into complex economic systems, religious practices, and international trade routes that connected the Indian subcontinent with civilizations as distant as Rome and China.

Chronology

• c. 3000 BCE – Earliest evidence of diamonds being known in India, with the gems found in alluvial deposits along rivers in the Deccan region [1]
• c. 800-600 BCE – Double diamond drill technique present in western India, demonstrating early technological use of diamonds for drilling [2]
• c. 700-500 BCE – Diamond mining as an organized industry appears to have originated in India during this period [2]
• c. 600 BCE – The Mahajanapada Empire establishes standardized units of measurement for diamonds using the Tandula (equivalent to a grain of rice) as the base unit [3, 4]
• c. 600 BCE – Development of the Rupaka currency system in the Mahajanapada Empire, with diamonds valued at specific rates (20 Tandulas = 200,000 Rupaka) [3, 4]
• c. 600-500 BCE – Indian punch-marked coins (Karshapanas) begin circulation, contemporary with early diamond trade [5]
• c. 515 BCE – Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley potentially brings knowledge of Indian diamonds to Persian Empire [6]
• c. 500 BCE – Persians mint coins in the Indus region, facilitating trade that may have included diamonds [6]
• c. 484 BCE – Greek historian Herodotus becomes first Greek writer to mention display of precious stones (possibly including diamonds) in palaces and temples [7]
• c. 400 BCE – Greek physician Ctesias publishes “Indika” containing travellers’ tales about India, including stories of incredibly rich diamond deposits guarded by griffins [2, 8]
• c. 380 BCE – Chaman Hazuri hoard in Kabul contains Greek and Indian coins, indicating active trade networks between regions [5]
• 4th century BCE – Buddhist texts begin describing diamonds as well-known precious stones, though without details of cutting techniques [2, 9]
• c. 371-287 BCE – Greek philosopher Theophrastus writes “On Stones” (315 BCE), first systematic mineralogical treatise mentioning stones suitable for engraving [10, 11]
• c. 350 BCE – Sanskrit grammar text “Ashtadhyayi” by Panini categorizes diamonds among ancient Indian coins and currency [5]
• c. 327-326 BCE – Alexander the Great invades India, potentially bringing back diamonds to Greece after defeating King Porus [12, 13]
• 320-296 BCE – “Arthashastra” manuscript by Kautilya (Chanakya) describes Ratna Pariksha, an ancient science for testing gemstones including diamonds, used by the Superintendent of Treasury [1, 3, 14]
• 320-296 BCE – Sanskrit manuscript contains earliest known written reference to diamonds in India [1, 3]
• c. 300 BCE – Diamond mining extends along 300 km of the Krishna River, with most intensive mining in a 60 km zone from Kollur Mine to Paritala [2]
• 3rd century BCE – Sanskrit price list values a 20-Tandula diamond at 200,000 Rupaka in the Indian currency system [3, 4]
• c. 200 BCE – First contact between China and the West through Central Asian trade routes, potentially including diamond trade [15]
• c. 130 BCE – Han Dynasty officially opens the Silk Road, creating potential routes for diamond trade between India and China [15, 16]
• c. 100 BCE-100 CE – Mir Zakah hoards contain evidence of continued trade including precious goods between India and western regions [5]
• 79 CE – Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder writes in “Natural History” about diamonds being washed from river gravel in India and describes them as “the most valuable, not only of precious stones, but of all things in this world” [2, 17, 18]
• 79 CE – Pliny describes diamonds being used by engravers: “These particles are held in great request by engravers, who enclose them in iron, and are enabled thereby, with the greatest facility, to cut the very hardest substances known” [14]
• 1st century CE – Roman women show great fondness for Indian diamonds according to Pliny, leading to significant gold drain from Rome to India (100 million sesterces annually) [19, 20]
• 1st century CE – Diamond trade reaches its peak between Rome and India through Red Sea ports and Persian Gulf routes [19, 20, 21]
• c. 100-200 CE – Ptolemaic period in Egypt sees limited use of diamonds, possibly imported from India for drilling harder gemstones [22]
• c. 200-300 CE – Buddhism spreads along Silk Road trade routes, potentially facilitating cultural exchange including knowledge of diamonds [16]
• c. 300-400 CE – Diamonds continue to be mined in Golconda region, though Roman trade begins to decline [2]
• c. 400-500 CE – Diamond mining continues in India with reduced international trade as Roman Empire weakens [2]
• c. 400-500 CE – Gupta Empire in India produces silver coins (Rupaka) maintaining traditional currency systems that included diamond valuation [23]

2. Diamonds In The Middle Ages (500 – 1500)

The medieval period marked a pivotal era in diamond history, beginning with their virtual absence in early medieval Europe while remaining treasures of the East, progressing through gradual introduction via Byzantine and Islamic trade networks, and culminating with sophisticated cutting techniques by the late 1400s. This millennium saw the evolution from diamonds as unknown rarities to the development of the point cut, table cut, and the revolutionary invention of the scaif polishing wheel, transforming these stones from dark, mysterious objects into brilliant gems that would captivate European nobility and establish traditions that endure to this day.

Chronology

• 500-600 – Indian diamond mining continues along the Krishna, Godavari and Penner rivers during the Gupta period (320-550 CE), with India remaining the world’s sole source of diamonds [1]
• 600 – The Mahajanapada Empire establishes units of measurement for diamonds called Tandula (weight of a grain of rice) and creates price lists in Sanskrit showing diamonds worth 200,000 Rupaka [2]
• 600-700 – Indian diamonds continue to be mined from alluvial deposits along the Krishna, Godavari, and Penna rivers in the Deccan region, though trade to Europe remains minimal following Rome’s fall [1]
• 700-800 – Arab traders gain control of Indian Ocean trade routes, becoming intermediaries for Indian diamonds; Islamic merchants transport diamonds from Indian mines to Middle Eastern markets [3]
• 786-809 – Tales of Sinbad the Sailor written during reign of Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid describe India’s legendary Valley of Diamonds, reflecting Arab knowledge of Indian diamond mining regions [1]
• 950-1050 – Islamic Golden Age facilitates increased diamond trade; Arab merchants regularly bring rubies and diamonds from India and Sri Lanka to Middle Eastern markets, with some reaching Byzantine traders [3]
• 1050-1100 – First Crusade (1096-1099) brings Europeans into direct contact with Eastern luxury goods; crusaders encounter diamonds in Byzantine and Islamic treasuries, sparking European interest [4]
• 1200s – The earliest European inventories mentioning diamonds appear, describing stones in their natural, uncut state as found in India [5]
• 1280-1310 – European inventories begin distinguishing between “made” (altered) and “unmade” (natural) diamonds, indicating the beginning of diamond working in Europe [5]
• 1304 – Sultan Alauddin Khalji of the Delhi Sultanate allegedly acquires a large diamond (possibly the future Koh-i-Noor) when invading kingdoms of southern India [6]
• 1310 – Malik Kafur, Alauddin Khalji’s general, raids Warangal and may have acquired the diamond later known as the Koh-i-Noor [6]
• 1330 – European diamond cutting begins in Venice following the opening of trade routes to the East by Venetian merchants [7]
• 1330s – Venice becomes a major diamond trading center as merchants gain access to Indian diamonds through Islamic traders [7]
• 1339 – A significant diamond (possibly the future Koh-i-Noor) is taken to Samarkand where it remains for nearly 300 years [8]
• Mid-1300s – The table cut appears, created by grinding away one point of an octahedral diamond to create a flat top surface [5]
• 1350s – The point cut becomes the standard way of shaping diamonds, following the natural octahedral crystal form [9]
• 1375 – The first guild of diamond cutters and polishers (Diamantaire) is formed in Nuremberg, Germany [10]
• Late 1300s – Diamond cutting guilds develop the single cut by adding corner facets to create eight facets total [11]
• Late 1300s – The rose cut begins development during this period, though it won’t gain popularity until the 16th century [7]
• 1400s – Diamond cutting centers develop in Paris, Bruges, and Antwerp as Europe’s economic center shifts to the North Sea region [7]
• 1400s – The step cut emerges as a precursor to the modern emerald cut [12]
• 1400s – Jewish craftsmen become prominent in the diamond trade, as it was one of the few professions they were permitted to practice [7]
• Mid-1400s – The table cut undergoes refinement with the addition of a culet (small facet on the bottom point) [11]
• 1456 – The claim that Lodewyk van Bercken invented the scaif (diamond polishing wheel) in this year is disputed by modern historians [13]
• 1458 – A Belgian diamond cutter (possibly van Bercken) discovers that diamonds can be cut and polished using their own dust [12]
• 1467 – Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, allegedly wears the Florentine Diamond (137.27 carats) when killed in battle [14]
• 1470s – Lodewyk van Bercken allegedly commissioned by Charles the Bold to cut three major diamonds, including the Florentine [15]
• 1475 – The scaif polishing wheel revolutionizes diamond cutting, enabling precise faceting and symmetry [15]
• 1475 – The first pear-shaped (briolette) diamond cut is developed, introducing the concept of absolute symmetry in faceting [16]
• 1476 – The Battle of Morat where Charles the Bold loses the Florentine Diamond, which is found by a soldier who sells it for a florin thinking it’s glass [14]
• 1477 – Charles the Bold dies at the Battle of Nancy on January 5, still allegedly wearing valuable diamonds [14]
• 1477 – Archduke Maximilian of Austria gives Mary of Burgundy the first documented diamond engagement ring, featuring diamonds arranged in the shape of an ‘M’ [17]
• 1480s – Diamond cutting techniques spread throughout Europe with centers established in major trading cities [7]
• 1490s – Advanced cutting techniques allow for more complex shapes including early marquise and oval cuts [9]
• Late 1400s – The rotary grinding wheel is introduced for diamond cutting, greatly improving precision [7]
• 1500 – By century’s end, diamonds have transformed from rough talismans to sophisticated cut gems symbolizing power, wealth, and love [18]

3. Diamonds In The Early-Modern Era (1500-1800)

The period from 1500 to 1800 represents a pivotal era in diamond history, characterized by the shift from India’s monopoly to Brazil’s emergence as a major source, the development of sophisticated cutting techniques from simple table cuts to complex brilliant designs, and the establishment of global trade networks that transported these precious gems from Eastern mines to Western royal treasuries. This chronology traces the key moments that shaped the diamond industry during these transformative centuries.

Chronology

• 1500s: Portuguese establish direct sea route to India, revolutionizing the diamond trade by circumventing traditional Middle Eastern intermediaries and establishing new maritime trade routes for Indian diamonds [1]
• Early 1500s: Table cut diamonds become prevalent in Europe, representing the first major faceting technique where the top point of an octahedral diamond crystal is sawn off to create a flat “table” surface [2]
• 1510: Portuguese conquer the City of Goa in India, making it the main diamond port for Indian diamonds destined for Europe [3]
• Mid-1500s: Rose cut diamond technique emerges from the workshops of Belgian diamond cutters, featuring triangular facets arranged in a symmetrical radiating pattern with 24 facets and a distinctive flat bottom [4]
• 1520: Single cut (or eight cut) diamond style develops, consisting of a flat table surrounded by eight or nine facets on the crown, essentially a square table cut with rounded and faceted edges [5]
• 1526: Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire, receives a large diamond as tribute for his conquest of Delhi and Agra at the Battle of Panipat, possibly the stone later known as the Koh-i-Noor [6]
• 1530: Rose cut diamonds are introduced to Europe and become increasingly popular for their ability to sparkle in candlelight [7]
• Prior to mid-1500s: Baguette cut is invented, featuring an elongated, table cut rectangular shape that would later become popular during the Art Deco period [8]
• 1540: China begins using matchlock firearms technology that originated in Europe, coinciding with increased East-West trade that included diamonds [9]
• Mid-1500s: Heart-shaped diamonds are already in production, as referenced in 1463 correspondence between the Duke of Milan and associates [10]
• 1550s: Diamond cutting centers flourish in Bruges and Antwerp as the European economic center shifts from the Mediterranean to the North Sea [11]
• 1562: Mary Queen of Scots gifts Queen Elizabeth I a heart-shaped diamond ring, one of the most famous heart-shaped diamonds of the era [10]
• 1570s: Herman Moll documents that Golconda, India is “Very Rich in Diamonds & other Precious Stones” in early trade route maps [12]
• 1590-1636: Antwerp maintains strong diamond trade connections with Portuguese India despite political tensions [13]
• 1595-1713: Dutch Sephardi Jewish merchants make significant contributions to Holland’s diamond trade during the Dutch Golden Age [13]
• 1600: English East India Company is established, eventually facilitating diamond trade between India and Britain [12]
• 1602: Dutch East India Company (VOC) is formed, becoming a major player in the Asian diamond trade [14]
• Early 1600s: India’s diamond cutting techniques advance significantly, with the Mughal cut becoming prominent between the 16th and 18th centuries [15]
• 1615-1672: Robert de Berquen claims his ancestor Lodewyk van Bercken invented diamond powder cutting technique, though historical evidence is disputed [16]
• 1630-1668: Jean-Baptiste Tavernier makes six voyages to Persia and India, becoming the most influential diamond merchant of his era [17]
• 1638-1643: Tavernier’s second voyage takes him to India where he visits the court of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and makes his first trip to the diamond mines [18]
• 1642: Tavernier arrives in Golconda, the center of India’s diamond trade, discovering his vocation as a gem merchant [19]
• Mid-1600s: Cardinal Mazarin invents the Mazarin Cut in France, the first true brilliant cut featuring 17 crown facets on a cushion shape [20]
• Mid-1600s: Single cut diamonds are introduced to Europe from India, featuring a flat table surrounded by eight or nine crown facets [8]
• 1650: The Great Mogul diamond, a 787-carat rough stone, is discovered in the Golconda mines and subsequently cut by Venetian lapidary Hortentio Borgis [21]
• 1656: A diamond that may be the Koh-i-Noor is presented to Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, though its early history remains disputed [22]
• 1660: Diamonds increasingly worn as symbols of wealth and social status across Europe [23]
• 1660-1800: Diamond trade flourishes between Europe and India with Amsterdam, London, and Antwerp as major cutting centers [24]
• 1665: Jean-Baptiste Tavernier visits the Krishna River diamond diggings and estimates 60,000 people are mining diamonds [25]
• 1665: Tavernier describes the Great Mogul diamond in detail as a high-crowned rose-cut stone with a flaw at the bottom [21]
• 1666: Tavernier discovers or purchases the 116-carat Tavernier Blue diamond (later the Hope Diamond) from Indian mines [26]
• 1668: Tavernier sells the Blue diamond to Louis XIV of France for 120,000 livres and receives a letter of ennoblement [27]
• 1669: Tavernier purchases the Seigneury of Aubonne near Geneva and becomes Baron of Aubonne [28]
• 1671: Louis XIV has court jeweler Jean Pitau recut Tavernier’s Blue diamond into the 68-carat French Blue [29]
• 1675: Tavernier publishes “Les Six Voyages de Jean-Baptiste Tavernier” at the behest of Louis XIV, providing detailed accounts of Indian diamond mines [30]
• 1700s: The Peruzzi Cut emerges as an improved Mazarin Cut with 33 crown facets, called the triple-cut brilliant [5]
• Early 1700s: India’s diamond supplies begin to decline after centuries of mining [31]
• 1714: Diamonds officially discovered near Diamantina in Minas Gerais, Brazil, though the official “discovery year” is listed as 1729 [32]
• 1720s: Dutch and Belgian craftsmen become world-renowned for producing rose cut diamonds [33]
• 1725: Brazilian diamonds discovered by gold miners along the banks of the Rio Jequitinhonha in Minas Gerais state [34]
• 1726: Brazil’s diamond discoveries end India’s monopoly as the world’s only diamond source [25]
• 1728: Nadir Shah of Persia invades India and takes possession of the Peacock Throne containing the Koh-i-Noor diamond [35]
• 1729: Official announcement of Brazilian diamond discovery reaches Europe [36]
• 1730-1735: Brazilian diamond market grows so rapidly that prices drop by 75% due to oversupply [37]
• 1730-1870: Brazil becomes the world’s largest diamond producer, extracting approximately 3 million carats between 1700-1800 [38]
• 1739: Persian commander Nadir Shah cries “Koh-i-Noor” (Mountain of Light) upon seeing the famous diamond in the conquered Mughal emperor’s turban [39]
• 1740s: First verifiable record of the Koh-i-Noor diamond appears in Muhammad Kazim Marvi’s history of Nader Shah’s invasion [6]
• Mid-1700s: Marquise cut invented in France when King Louis XV commissions a diamond cut to reflect the shape of his mistress Marquise de Pompadour’s lips [40]
• 1747: Nadir Shah is assassinated and the Peacock Throne with its diamonds, including the Koh-i-Noor, disappears [41]
• 1748: Excavations of Pompeii begin, inspiring neoclassical jewelry designs including diamond settings [42]
• 1750: Old mine cushion cut diamonds develop in Brazil, featuring high crowns, small tables, and larger culets [43]
• 1771: Portuguese Minister Pombal nationalizes Brazilian diamond mines, causing economic disruption [37]
• 1790s: Table cuts, point cuts, and rose cuts still prevalent despite newer brilliant cuts, as Indian diamonds become scarce and are recut en masse [44]
• 1792: French Royal storehouse is robbed during the Revolution; the French Blue diamond disappears and later resurfaces as the Hope Diamond [45]
• Late 1700s: Political upheavals like the French Revolution lead to changes in wealth distribution, affecting diamond consumption patterns among declining aristocracy [46]
• 1800: Annual diamond production reaches approximately 3 million carats, up from well under 1 million carats in the 1870s [31]

4. Diamonds In The Modern Era (1800 – Present Day)

The modern diamond era represents a dramatic departure from centuries of small-scale, alluvial mining in India and Brazil. Beginning with the South African discoveries of the 1860s, the diamond industry underwent rapid industrialization, consolidation, and globalization. This period witnessed the rise of mining giants like De Beers, the opening of new diamond fields across multiple continents, revolutionary advances in cutting and synthesis technology, and the creation of cultural narratives that transformed diamonds from aristocratic baubles into symbols of middle-class aspiration. The story encompasses colonial exploitation, technological breakthroughs, marketing brilliance, and ongoing struggles over ethics, ownership, and environmental responsibility.

Chronology

• 1812 – The Hope Diamond surfaces in London in the possession of diamond merchant Daniel Eliason, just two days after the statute of limitations for crimes committed during the French Revolution expired [1]
• 1826 – Diamonds are discovered in Brazil in the state of Minas Gerais, briefly making Brazil the world’s leading diamond producer until South African discoveries overshadow Brazilian production [2]
• 1839 – The Hope Diamond appears in the published catalog of Henry Philip Hope’s gem collection, giving the famous blue diamond its enduring name [3]
• 1851 – The Hope Diamond is displayed at the Great Exhibition in London’s Crystal Palace, attracting thousands of viewers despite complaints about its dull appearance [4]
• 1854 – The Asscher Diamond Company is founded in Amsterdam by Joseph Isaac Asscher, establishing what would become one of the world’s most prestigious diamond cutting houses [5]
• 1852 – Coster Diamonds of Amsterdam recuts the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond for the British Crown, reducing it from 186 carats to 105.6 carats to enhance its brilliance [6]
• 1866 – Erasmus Jacobs, a 15-year-old boy, discovers a 21.25-carat diamond near the Orange River in South Africa, later named the Eureka Diamond, marking the beginning of South Africa’s diamond era [7]
• 1869 – The 83.5-carat Star of South Africa diamond is discovered, sparking the first major diamond rush to the region [8]
• 1871 – Diamonds are discovered on Colesberg Kopje (later the site of the Kimberley Mine) in July, leading to the establishment of what would become the world’s largest hand-dug excavation [9]
• 1871 – The British annex the diamond fields as the Crown Colony of Griqualand West, asserting colonial control over the region’s mineral wealth [10]
• 1872 – The diamond mining camp of New Rush is established, later renamed Kimberley after the British Colonial Secretary [11]
• 1873 – Venetian lapidary Hortentio Borgio cuts the Orlov Diamond for Catherine the Great of Russia, setting it in the Imperial Sceptre [12]
• 1874 – Count Grigory Orlov purchases the Orlov Diamond for Catherine the Great in an unsuccessful attempt to regain her favor [13]
• 1880 – Cecil Rhodes establishes De Beers Mining Company with Charles Rudd, beginning his consolidation of South African diamond mines [14]
• 1882 – Kimberley becomes the first city in the Southern Hemisphere to install electric street lighting, powered by wealth from diamond mining [15]
• 1888 – Cecil Rhodes merges with Barney Barnato to form De Beers Consolidated Mines Limited on March 12, gaining control of approximately 90% of world diamond production [16]
• 1889 – De Beers negotiates an agreement with the London-based Diamond Syndicate to regulate output and maintain prices, establishing the template for future market control [17]
• 1893 – The Excelsior Diamond (995.2 carats) is discovered at Jagersfontein Mine in South Africa on June 30, becoming the largest known diamond at that time [18]
• 1900 – De Beers controls an estimated 90 percent of the world’s production of rough diamonds through its South African mines [19]
• 1902 – Joseph Asscher designs and patents the Asscher cut, the first patented diamond cut, featuring a distinctive square shape with an X pattern visible from above [20]
• 1902 – The Premier Mine is established in South Africa by Thomas Cullinan, which would soon yield the world’s largest diamond [21]
• 1905 – The Cullinan Diamond (3,106 carats) is discovered by Frederick Wells at the Premier Mine on January 26, becoming the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found [22]
• 1906 – John Wesley Huddleston discovers diamonds on his property near Murfreesboro, Arkansas in August, leading to the establishment of the only diamond mine in the United States [23]
• 1907 – The Transvaal government purchases the Cullinan Diamond for £150,000 and presents it to King Edward VII of Britain [24]
• 1908 – Joseph Asscher successfully cleaves the Cullinan Diamond in Amsterdam, ultimately producing 105 polished gems including the Great Star of Africa (530.2 carats) [25]
• 1911 – American socialite Evalyn Walsh McLean purchases the Hope Diamond from Cartier for $185,000, beginning its most famous period of private ownership [26]
• 1912 – The Hope Diamond is reset as a pendant on a diamond necklace, the form in which it is known today [27]
• 1914 – The Kimberley Mine closes after producing 2,722 kilograms (14.5 million carats) of diamonds from 22.5 million tons of earth excavated [28]
• 1926 – Ernest Oppenheimer is elected to the board of De Beers, beginning his family’s long control of the company [29]
• 1930s – De Beers begins conducting experimental work with diamond drills, pioneering their use in deep mining operations [30]
• 1939 – De Beers launches a marketing campaign with N.W. Ayer & Son to increase demand for diamond engagement rings in the United States [31]
• 1947 – Frances Gerety of N.W. Ayer creates the slogan “A Diamond is Forever” for De Beers, later recognized as the greatest advertising slogan of the 20th century [32]
• 1949 – Harry Winston purchases the Hope Diamond from the McLean estate, beginning a decade of displaying it at charitable events worldwide [33]
• 1953 – Swedish company ASEA successfully creates synthetic diamonds on February 16 but keeps the achievement secret [34]
• 1954 – H. Tracy Hall at General Electric produces the first commercially viable synthetic diamonds on December 16, announcing the breakthrough in February 1955 [35]
• 1958 – Harry Winston donates the Hope Diamond to the Smithsonian Institution on November 10, where it becomes the museum’s premier attraction [36]
• 1967 – De Beers discovers the Orapa diamond deposit in Botswana, marking the beginning of Botswana’s emergence as a major diamond producer [37]
• 1967 – De Beers purchases the Eureka Diamond and donates it to the people of South Africa for the centenary of its discovery [38]
• 1971 – De Beers forms Debswana with the government of Botswana as a 50-50 partnership to develop the Orapa mine [39]
• 1972 – The Argyle Mine is discovered in Western Australia by geologists employed by the Ashton Joint Venture, though diamond samples are not found until 1979 [40]
• 1973 – The Jwaneng diamond deposit is discovered in Botswana in February, later becoming the world’s richest diamond mine by value [41]
• 1976 – The Diavik deposit is discovered in Canada’s Northwest Territories during systematic exploration by De Beers [42]
• 1979 – The Argyle diamond pipe is discovered in Western Australia on October 2, which would become the world’s largest source of pink diamonds [43]
• 1980 – Queen Juliana of the Netherlands grants the Asscher Diamond Company a royal title, making it the Royal Asscher Diamond Company [44]
• 1982 – The Jwaneng Mine in Botswana begins operations, quickly becoming the world’s richest diamond mine by value [45]
• 1985 – The Argyle Mine in Australia is commissioned in December, soon becoming the world’s largest diamond producer by volume [46]
• 1985 – Sumitomo Electric Industries in Japan announces large-scale production of gem-quality synthetic diamonds for industrial use [47]
• 1988 – De Beers’ market share peaks at approximately 90% of global rough diamond sales [48]
• 1991 – Chuck Fipke and Stewart Blusson discover diamonds at Lac de Gras in Canada’s Northwest Territories, sparking the largest staking rush in Canadian history [49]
• 1994 – De Beers announces plans to develop Canada’s first diamond mine at Ekati following successful exploration [50]
• 1998 – The Ekati Diamond Mine begins production on October 14, becoming Canada’s first commercial diamond mine [51]
• 2000 – De Beers’ market share of rough diamonds falls to 63% as new producers enter the market [52]
• 2000 – Canada emerges as a significant diamond producer with the opening of multiple mines in the Northwest Territories [53]
• 2002 – Edward Asscher creates the Royal Asscher Cut, updating the classic Asscher cut with 74 facets instead of 58 [54]
• 2003 – The Diavik Diamond Mine in Canada begins production in January, becoming one of the world’s largest diamond mines [55]
• 2003 – The Premier Mine in South Africa is renamed the Cullinan Diamond Mine in honor of the famous diamond discovered there [56]
• 2006 – The film “Blood Diamond” raises public awareness about conflict diamonds and ethical sourcing issues [57]
• 2008 – De Beers moves its sorting and sales operations from London to Gaborone, Botswana, marking a historic shift in the diamond trade [58]
• 2011 – Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands perpetuates the Royal Predicate for Royal Asscher for another 25 years [59]
• 2013 – The Argyle Mine transitions from open-pit to underground operations to extend its productive life [60]
• 2019 – Canada produces 18.6 million carats valued at $2.25 billion, making it the world’s third-largest diamond producer [61]
• 2020 – The Argyle Diamond Mine in Australia closes in November after 37 years of operation and producing over 865 million carats [62]
• 2021 – Arctic Canadian Diamond Company acquires the Ekati Diamond Mine from Dominion Diamond Mines [63]
• 2023 – Burgundy Diamond Mines purchases full control of Arctic Canadian Diamond Company and the Ekati Mine [64]
• 2024 – The underground expansion of Jwaneng Mine in Botswana begins, extending the mine’s life beyond 2040 [65]

Final Thoughts

As we reach the end of this five-thousand-year journey, the diamond industry stands at a crossroads that would have been unimaginable to the ancient miners along India’s Krishna River or even to Cecil Rhodes as he consolidated his African empire. The certainties that once defined this trade—natural scarcity, monopolistic control, unquestioned desirability—have given way to a landscape of ethical scrutiny, technological disruption, and evolving consumer values.

The closure of Australia’s Argyle Mine in 2020, after producing 865 million carats over 37 years, marked more than the end of a single operation. It symbolized the finite nature of even the most productive sources and raised questions about what comes next. Laboratory-grown diamonds, once dismissed as inferior substitutes, now challenge the industry’s fundamental premise that value derives from geological rarity. Young consumers increasingly ask not just “is it beautiful?” but “is it ethical?”—a question that would have puzzled the merchants who once traded these stones for silk and spices along ancient caravan routes.

Yet perhaps the most profound lesson from this long history is not about diamonds themselves, but about the stories we tell to create value. From ancient Indian texts that attributed mystical properties to these crystals, to De Beers’ manufactured tradition of diamond engagement rings, the true power has always resided in narrative. The Koh-i-Noor’s curse, the Hope Diamond’s legend, the promise that “A Diamond is Forever”—these stories transformed mineralogy into mythology, chemistry into culture.

Looking forward, the diamond industry faces challenges that echo throughout our interconnected world: How do we balance tradition with innovation? How do we reconcile luxury with sustainability? The answers will shape not just the fate of a single industry, but our broader relationship with the natural resources we extract, the workers we employ, and the symbols we choose to represent our deepest commitments.

In the end, diamonds remain what they have always been: carbon atoms arranged in a particularly stable configuration, refracting light in aesthetically pleasing ways. But they are also what we have made them through millennia of meaning-making: symbols of power and love, tools of empire and exploitation, objects of beauty and moral complexity. As we write the next chapter of this ongoing story, we might remember that the true value of diamonds—like all things humans treasure—lies not in the stones themselves, but in what they reveal about who we are and who we aspire to become.

Appendix:

Diamonds In The Ancient Era References

[1] Family & Co. Jewelers – Diamond History of India – https://www.familyjewelers.com/blog/2019/Oct/06/diamond-history-india/

[2] Wikipedia – Diamond mining in India – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_mining_in_India

[3] The Mysterious India – Diamond Mining in Ancient India – https://www.themysteriousindia.net/diamond-mining-in-ancient-india/

[4] Finnati – Diamonds And The History – https://finnati.com/diamonds/

[5] Wikipedia – Punch-marked coins – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punch-marked_coins

[6] Wikipedia – Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley

[7] Madras Courier – Greek Philosophers & Indian Diamonds – https://madrascourier.com/insight/greek-philosophers-indian-diamonds/

[8] GIA – Diamond History and Lore – https://www.gia.edu/diamond-history-lore

[9] Wisdom Library – Vajra: Significance and symbolism – https://www.wisdomlib.org/concept/vajra

[10] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Theophrastus – https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/theophrastus/

[11] Perseus Digital Library – A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities – GEMMA – https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:entry%3Dgemma-cn

[12] Wikipedia – Indian campaign of Alexander the Great – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great

[13] The Collector – Alexander the Great in India: Furthest and Final Conquests – https://www.thecollector.com/alexander-the-great-india-conquest-achaemenid-empire/

[14] Levy’s Fine Jewelry – The History of Diamond Cutting – https://levysfinejewelry.com/pages/history-of-diamond-cutting

[15] World History Encyclopedia – Silk Road – https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk_Road/

[16] Smithsonian – The Silk Road: Connecting People and Cultures – https://festival.si.edu/2002/the-silk-road/the-silk-road-connecting-peoples-and-cultures/smithsonian

[17] Diamond Rocks – Diamonds in Greek and Roman mythology – https://www.diamondrocks.co.uk/magazine/diamonds-greek-roman-mythology/

[18] Wikipedia – Diamond (gemstone) – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_(gemstone)

[19] The Print – Rome to Kabul, ancient India was a global player in trade – https://theprint.in/opinion/rome-to-kabul-ancient-india-was-a-global-player-in-trade-kautilyas-arthshastra-tells-all/2030526/

[20] Wikipedia – Indo-Roman trade relations – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations

[21] New World Encyclopedia – Roman trade with India – https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Roman_trade_with_India

[22] Facts and Details – GEM STONES IN ANCIENT EGYPT – https://factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub404/entry-6153.html

[23] Wikipedia – Indian rupee – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupee

Diamonds In The Middle Ages References

[1] Golconda diamonds – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golconda_diamonds

[2] Diamond History of India – Family & Co. Jewelers – https://www.familyjewelers.com/blog/2019/Oct/06/diamond-history-india/

[3] Trade and Commerce During the Islamic Golden Age | The Review of Religions – https://www.reviewofreligions.org/41191/trade-and-commerce-during-the-islamic-golden-age/

[4] Medieval Jewelry – Antique Jewelry University – https://www.langantiques.com/university/medieval-jewelry/

[5] Evolution of Diamond Cuts – Museum Diamonds – https://museumdiamonds.com/evolution-of-diamond-cuts/

[6] Explained: The History Of The Kohinoor Diamond And The Timeline Of Its Possession – https://www.outlookindia.com/national/explained-the-history-of-the-kohinoor-diamond-and-the-timeline-of-its-possession-news-291358

[7] A History of Diamond Cutting – Antique Jewelry University – https://www.langantiques.com/university/a-history-of-diamond-cutting/

[8] History of Kohinoor Diamond – Kohinoor Diamond of India – https://kohinoordiamond.org/history-of-kohinoor-diamond/

[9] The History of Diamond Cutting (Part I) | Zillion – https://www.myzillion.com/post/the-history-of-diamond-cutting-part-i/

[10] Diamond cutting – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_cutting

[11] Diamond cut – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_cut

[12] The History Of The First Diamond Cuts Oldmine – https://www.oldmineshop.com/blog/https/oldmineshopcom/blog-page-url/new-post-title-3

[13] Lodewyk van Bercken – The Father of Diamond Cutting Who Never Existed – https://levysfinejewelry.com/blogs/articles/lodewyk-van-bercken

[14] Florentine Diamond – Antique Jewelry University – https://www.langantiques.com/university/florentine-diamond/

[15] Lodewyk van Bercken – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodewyk_van_Bercken

[16] The History of Diamond Cutting | Cape Town Diamond Museum – https://www.capetowndiamondmuseum.org/education/history-of-diamond-cutting/

[17] The First Diamond Engagement Ring – https://www.engagementringbible.com/who-had-the-first-diamond-engagement-ring/

[18] History of Diamond Cutting – The Point Cut and Wearing Rough Diamonds – https://levysfinejewelry.com/pages/history-of-diamond-cutting-point-cut

Diamonds In The Early-Modern Era References

[1] Spice trade – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice_trade

[2] History of Diamond Cutting – Table Cut – https://levysfinejewelry.com/pages/history-of-diamond-cutting-table-cut

[3] A History of Diamond Cutting – Antique Jewelry University – https://www.langantiques.com/university/a-history-of-diamond-cutting/

[4] The History Of The First Diamond Cuts Oldmine – https://www.oldmineshop.com/blog/https/oldmineshopcom/blog-page-url/new-post-title-3

[5] The History of Diamond Cuts : Rose Cuts, Old European, Old Mine, and More : Arden Jewelers – https://www.mygemologist.com/learn/diamonds/the-history-of-diamond-cuts/

[6] Koh-i-Noor – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koh-i-Noor

[7] The History of Diamond Cutting | Cape Town Diamond Museum – https://www.capetowndiamondmuseum.org/education/history-of-diamond-cutting/

[8] Discover the History of Diamond Cuts – Fascinating Timeline of Antique Cut Diamonds – https://www.yatesjewelers.com/history-of-diamond-cuts.html

[9] Early modern period – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_period

[10] HISTORY OF DIAMOND CUTS – Global Gemology & Appraisals – Premier Jewelry Valuation Services – https://www.globalgemology.com/history-of-diamond-cuts.html

[11] The European World 1500–1800: An Introduction to Early Modern History – https://www.routledge.com/The-European-World-1500-1800-An-Introduction-to-Early-Modern-History/Kumin/p/book/9780367691554

[12] Trader Flows: Early 18th Century East Indies Trade | Worlds Revealed – https://blogs.loc.gov/maps/2024/05/trader-flows-early-18th-century-east-indies-trade/

[13] Shifting trajectories of diamond processing: from India to Europe and back, from the fifteenth century to the twentieth* | Journal of Global History | Cambridge Core – https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-global-history/article/abs/shifting-trajectories-of-diamond-processing-from-india-to-europe-and-back-from-the-fifteenth-century-to-the-twentieth/3354CA5DEF846A3070DEDA7D4EB6C1F5

[14] Dutch and English trade to the East: the Indian Ocean and the Levant, to about 1700 (Chapter 10) – The Cambridge World History – https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-world-history/dutch-and-english-trade-to-the-east-the-indian-ocean-and-the-levant-to-about-1700/062C4CFF88419AFDC7DB70018F13E527

[15] A History of Diamond Cutting – https://www.naturaldiamonds.com/historic-diamonds/history-diamond-cutting/

[16] Diamond History of India – Family & Co. Jewelers – https://www.familyjewelers.com/blog/2019/Oct/06/diamond-history-india/

[17] Jean-Baptiste Tavernier – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Tavernier

[18] Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1638-1643 AD)- Art and Culture Notes – https://prepp.in/news/e-492-jean-baptiste-tavernier-1638-1643-ad-art-and-culture-notes

[19] Great Explorers: Jean Baptiste Tavernier » Explorersweb – https://explorersweb.com/great-explorers-jean-baptiste-tavernier/

[20] History of Diamond Cutting | Erstwhile Jewelry – https://erstwhilejewelry.com/blogs/stories/history-of-diamond-cutting

[21] Great Mogul diamond | Indian, Koh-i-Noor, Cullinan | Britannica – https://www.britannica.com/topic/Great-Mogul-Diamond

[22] Koh-i-noor | Diamond, Controversy, & Facts | Britannica – https://www.britannica.com/topic/Koh-i-noor

[23] Diamonds Through the Ages | Cape Town Diamond Museum – https://www.capetowndiamondmuseum.org/about-diamonds/diamonds-through-the-ages/

[24] The Koh-I-Noor Diamond – https://famousdiamonds.tripod.com/koh-i-noordiamond.html

[25] Diamond mining in India – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_mining_in_India

[26] [Solved] Which one of the following foreign travellers elaborately di – https://testbook.com/question-answer/which-one-of-the-following-foreign-travellers-elab–5f368027efe3d50d099d446a

[27] TAVERNIER, JEAN-BAPTISTE – Encyclopaedia Iranica – https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/tavernier-jean-baptiste/

[28] The True Story of the Koh-i-Noor Diamond—and Why the British Won’t Give It Back – https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/true-story-koh-i-noor-diamondand-why-british-wont-give-it-back-180964660/

[29] Travels in India I – Tavernier, Jean Baptiste – Full Text & Illus. – Farlang – http://farlang.com/books/jean-baptiste-tavernier-travels-in-india-vol-i

[30] Travels in India, Volume II – https://famineanddearth.exeter.ac.uk/displayhtml.html?id=fp_00230_en_travelsinindia_vol02

[31] Diamond History and Lore – https://www.gia.edu/diamond-history-lore

[32] SciELO Brazil – Diamonds from the Coromandel Area, West Minas Gerais State, Brazil: an update and new data on surface sources and origin – https://www.scielo.br/j/bjgeo/a/8pt6jdSZRMXWBZnHQ69HPvb/

[33] History of Diamond Cutting – Rose Cut – https://levysfinejewelry.com/pages/history-of-diamond-cutting-rose-cut

[34] Brazilian Diamonds: A Historical and Recent Perspective | Gems & Gemology – https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2017-brazilian-diamonds

[35] Famous diamonds | Galeries du Diamant – https://gdparis.com/famous-diamonds/

[36] Historical Reading List: Diamond and Carbonado from Brazil (Part 1) – https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research/historical-reading-diamond-and-carbonado-part-1

[37] Brazil (1730-1870) – https://www.langerman-diamonds.com/blogs/encyclopedia/brazil-1730-1870

[38] Brazil’s Diamonds – Southern Explorations – https://www.southernexplorations.com/diamonds-brazil

[39] The Koh-i-Noor Diamond: History, value and mystique – BAUNAT – https://www.baunat.com/en/what-is-the-koh-i-noor-how-much-is-this-stone-worth

[40] O Diamante – The History of Diamonds in Brazil – Crystal Gemstone Shop – https://crystalgemstoneshop.com/blogs/stones/brazilian-diamond-history

[41] Koh-i-Noor Diamond – Antique Jewelry University – https://www.langantiques.com/university/koh-i-noor-diamond/

[42] History of Jewelry Timeline – https://doyledoyle.com/pages/timeline

[43] Diamantina, Minas Gerais – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamantina,_Minas_Gerais

[44] Koh-i-Noor: The History of the World’s Most Infamous Diamond – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koh-i-Noor:_The_History_of_the_World’s_Most_Infamous_Diamond

[45] The Hope and Koh-i-noor: New insights into the world’s most famous diamonds – Jeweller Magazine – https://www.jewellermagazine.com/Article/13047/The-Hope-and-Koh-i-noor-New-insights-into-the-worlds-most-famous-diamonds

[46] History of Diamonds, Where Do Diamonds Come From – https://www.brilliance.com/education/diamonds/history

Diamonds In The Modern Era References

[1] History of the Hope Diamond – https://naturalhistory.si.edu/explore/collections/hope-diamond-history

[2] Brazilian Diamonds: A Historical and Recent Perspective – https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2017-brazilian-diamonds

[3] History of the Hope Diamond | Smithsonian Institution – https://www.si.edu/spotlight/hope-diamond/history

[4] History of the Hope Diamond | Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History – https://naturalhistory.si.edu/explore/collections/hope-diamond-history

[5] Royal Asscher Diamond Company – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Asscher_Diamond_Company

[6] Diamond houses – Diamond Museum Amsterdam – https://www.diamondmuseum.com/exhibits-themes/diamond-houses/diamond-houses/

[7] Eureka Diamond – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka_Diamond

[8] Kimerley | Wilbur Smith’s Notebook – https://www.wilbursmithbooks.com/wilbur-s-notebook/kimberley

[9] Big Hole – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Hole

[10] Kimberley, Northern Cape – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimberley,_Northern_Cape

[11] KIMBERLEY MINE – A CHRONOLOGICAL PICTORIAL OF THE BIG HOLE – https://grahamlesliemccallum.wordpress.com/2014/07/03/a-chronological-pictorial-of-the-kimberley-mine/

[12] Orlov (diamond) – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlov_(diamond)

[13] The Orlov Diamond | Ajediam – https://ajediam.com/diamond-history/famous-diamonds/the-orlov-diamond/

[14] Cecil Rhodes – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecil_Rhodes

[15] South African Diamond History | CT Diamond Museum – https://www.capetowndiamondmuseum.org/about-diamonds/south-african-diamond-history/

[16] De Beers – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Beers

[17] Early History of De Beers Diamonds – https://suttonsandrobertsons.com/articles/the-early-history-of-de-beers/

[18] History – Royal Asscher – https://royalasscher.com/pages/history

[19] History of Diamonds, Where Do Diamonds Come From – https://www.brilliance.com/education/diamonds/history

[20] The History of Asscher Cut Diamonds – https://www.gemsociety.org/article/history-asscher-cut-diamonds/

[21] Premier Mine – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_Mine

[22] Cullinan Diamond – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cullinan_Diamond

[23] History of the Diamond Mine | Arkansas State Parks – https://www.arkansasstateparks.com/parks/crater-diamonds-state-park/history/history-of-the-diamond-mine

[24] Cullinan diamond discovered in the Premier diamond mine in 1905 – https://internetstones.com/cullinan-diamond-famous-jewelry.html

[25] World’s largest diamond found | January 25, 1905 | HISTORY – https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/january-25/worlds-largest-diamond-found

[26] The Hope Diamond: A Journey Through History, Mystery, and Myth – https://timcodiamonds.com/en/editorial/the-hope-diamond-a-journey-through-history-mystery-and-myth/

[27] 10 Amazing Facts About the Cursed Hope Diamond – https://fiveminutehistory.com/10-amazing-facts-about-the-cursed-hope-diamond/

[28] Big Hole – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Hole

[29] The history of diamonds – Part 2 – https://ethica.diamonds/blogs/news/the-history-of-diamonds-part-2

[30] The eventful history of De Beers – https://www.baunat.com/en/the-unusual-story-of-de-beers-company-controlling-diamond-prices

[31] The history of diamonds – Part 2 – https://ethica.diamonds/blogs/news/the-history-of-diamonds-part-2

[32] Mary Frances Gerety – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Frances_Gerety

[33] Hope Diamond – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope_Diamond

[34] Synthetic diamond – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_diamond

[35] Tracy Hall – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracy_Hall

[36] The Legend of the Hope Diamond – https://www.capetowndiamondmuseum.org/blog/2013/12/the-legend-of-the-hope-diamond/

[37] Our history – De Beers Group – https://www.debeersgroup.com/about-us/our-history

[38] Diamond Portraits: Erasmus Stephanus Jacobs – https://www.ehudlaniado.com/home/index.php/news/entry/diamond-portraits-erasmus-stephanus-jacobs

[39] Botswana – De Beers Group – https://www.debeersgroup.com/about-us/our-operations/our-mines/botswana

[40] Argyle diamond mine – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argyle_diamond_mine

[41] Jwaneng – the untold story of the discovery – http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2225-62532019000200010

[42] Canadian diamonds – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_diamonds

[43] The Argyle Mine – Australian Pink Diamond Exchange – https://australianpinkdiamondexchange.com.au/blogs/education/the-argyle-mine

[44] House of Royal Asscher – https://royalasscher.com/pages/house-of-asscher

[45] Jwaneng diamond mine – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jwaneng_diamond_mine

[46] Argyle Pink Diamond Mine | Argyle Pink Diamonds – https://argylepinkdiamonds.com.au/mine/

[47] Synthetic Diamonds: From Dark Industrials to Bright Gems – https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research-synthetic-diamonds-dark-industrials-bright-gems

[48] Exclusive: Diamond Company Cecil Rhodes Founded – https://www.newsweek.com/oxford-university-cecil-rhodes-race-racism-diamonds-de-beers-1511938

[49] Ekati Diamond Mine – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekati_Diamond_Mine

[50] Ekati diamond mine – a timeline – https://www.mining-technology.com/projects/ekati-diamond-mine-a-timeline/

[51] Ekati Mine | EROS – https://eros.usgs.gov/earthshots/ekati-mine

[52] A tagline is forever | The Marketing Society – https://www.marketingsociety.com/the-library/tagline-forever

[53] Diamond Mines, Northwest Territories, Canada | EROS – https://eros.usgs.gov/earthshots/diamond-mines-northwest-territories-canada

[54] House of Royal Asscher – https://royalasscher.com/pages/house-of-asscher

[55] Diavik – https://www.riotinto.com/en/operations/canada/diavik

[56] Cullinan Mine ♦ Petra Diamonds – https://www.petradiamonds.com/our-business/our-operations/cullinan-mine/

[57] Not directly cited but widely known event

[58] Botswana Celebrates 50 Years – https://diamondsdogood.com/diamonds-transform-botswana-empower-youth/

[59] Asscher Cut Diamonds – https://www.berganza.com/feature-asscher_cut_diamonds.html

[60] Why did Argyle diamond mine Close? – https://pinkkimberley.com.au/blogs/education/why-did-argyle-diamond-mine-close

[61] Mines – NWT & Nunavut Chamber Of Mines – https://www.miningnorth.com/mines

[62] Argyle Pink Diamond Mine | Argyle Pink Diamonds – https://argylepinkdiamonds.com.au/mine/

[63] Canada’s first diamond mine, Ekati – https://www.canadianminingjournal.com/news/canadas-first-diamond-mine-ekati-reaches-historic-100-million-carats/

[64] Ekati Mine – Burgundy Diamond Mines Ltd – https://burgundydiamonds.com/ekati-mine/

[65] Jwaneng Diamond Mine, Botswana – https://www.mining-technology.com/projects/jwaneng-diamond-mine/