Beryllium, the fourth element on the periodic table, represents one of humanity’s most intriguing encounters with the natural world—a substance both remarkably useful and dangerously toxic. From its ancient presence in precious gemstones to its critical role in cutting-edge technologies like the James Webb Space Telescope and fusion reactors, beryllium’s story spans millennia of human civilization and scientific advancement. This lightweight metal, with properties that defy its position among the alkaline earth metals, has shaped industries from telecommunications to aerospace, while simultaneously demanding respect for its potential health hazards. The journey of beryllium from mysterious component of emeralds to essential material in nuclear technology illustrates humanity’s evolving relationship with the elements and our growing ability to harness nature’s building blocks for technological progress.

Be sure to check out all other critical raw materials (CRMs), as well.

A History Of Beryllium

The history of beryllium encompasses centuries of scientific discovery, industrial innovation, and medical understanding. From its identification in precious gemstones to its modern applications in space exploration and fusion energy, beryllium has played a crucial role in technological advancement while presenting unique challenges in occupational health and safety.

Chronology

• 305-30 BCE – Beryl and emerald minerals containing beryllium were used during the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt [1]
• 77-79 – Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder noted in his encyclopedia Natural History that beryl and emerald (“smaragdus”) were similar minerals [1]
• 200-400 – The Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis contained notes on preparing artificial emerald and beryl [1]
• 1798 – French chemist Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin discovered beryllium as a new “earth” in beryl and emerald, initially naming it “glucinium” from Greek glykys (sweet) due to the sweet taste of its compounds; Abbé René-Just Haüy recognized that beryl and emerald crystals were geometrically identical and requested Vauquelin to analyze them chemically [1, 2, 3]
• 1828 – Friedrich Wöhler of Germany and Antoine-Alexandre-Brutus Bussy of France independently isolated metallic beryllium by reducing beryllium chloride with potassium in a platinum crucible [1, 2, 3]
• 1898 – Paul Lebeau achieved the first pure (99.5-99.8%) samples of beryllium through direct electrolysis of a molten mixture of beryllium fluoride and sodium fluoride [1]
• 1920 – First commercial applications of beryllium copper alloys emerged for conductive springs in telephone switchboard relays [4]
• 1921 – First commercially successful process for producing beryllium developed in Germany by Alfred Stock and Hans Goldschmidt [1]
• 1926 – Early beryllium copper alloy patents filed for use as conductive spring components in telephone systems; discovery that adding 2% beryllium to copper produced an alloy six times stronger than copper alone [5, 6]
• 1932 – James Chadwick discovered the neutron by bombarding beryllium with alpha particles from radium, leading to his 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics [1, 8]
• 1933 – First cases of acute beryllium disease reported in Europe among beryllium workers [7]
• 1940s – Beryllium’s qualities supported national defense in World War II in marine diesel engines and other applications; Acute respiratory and dermal reactions to beryllium exposure first reported in the United States among beryllium extraction and processing workers [6, 8]
• 1943 – First reports of acute beryllium disease in the United States by Van Ordstrand and colleagues [9]
• 1946 – Harriet Hardy and I.R. Tabershaw described chronic beryllium disease (CBD) for the first time in 17 fluorescent lamp workers exposed to beryllium fluoride in Salem, Massachusetts, originally naming it “Salem sarcoid” [8, 9, 10]
• 1948 – Total known cases of beryllium disease exceeded 400, with basic clinical features understood [9]
• 1949 – Use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes discontinued due to berylliosis among workers; Beryllium exposure standards of 2 μg/m³ introduced by the Atomic Energy Commission [1, 5]
• 1950 – Cases of chronic beryllium disease identified among residents near beryllium plants in Ohio and Pennsylvania [9]
• 1952 – Rocky Flats Plant built near Boulder, Colorado for beryllium and plutonium pit production for nuclear weapons [25]
• 1954-1989 – Rocky Flats Plant produced beryllium components for US nuclear weapons, with beryllium-clad pits becoming standard by mid-1950s [26]
• 1957 – Beryllium metal became readily available to industry [11]
• 1959 – NASA tested beryllium heat sink shields for Mercury spacecraft as alternative to ablative shields [27]
• 1961 – Alan Shepard flew on Mercury-Redstone 3 with beryllium heat shield, becoming first American in space; beryllium used extensively in Mercury program heat shields and structural components [27, 28]
• 1965 – Beryllium shingles developed by Materion to protect parachute enclosures on Gemini spacecraft [28]
• 1970s – Beryllium copper found significant usage in automotive and telecommunications industries; beryllium components used in Space Shuttle program [4, 28]
• 1971 – OSHA established initial permissible exposure limit (PEL) for beryllium [12]
• 1981 – Space Shuttle Columbia launched with beryllium components in various systems [29]
• 1988 – First transatlantic undersea fiber optic telecommunication cable using copper beryllium alloy connectors entered intercontinental service [28]
• 1989 – Rocky Flats Plant closed due to safety issues after identifying over 50 cases of chronic berylliosis among beryllium workers [26]
• 1993 – Genetic factors in beryllium sensitization identified, with HLA-DPB1 gene variant found in majority of chronic beryllium disease patients; DOE relocated beryllium production operations from Rocky Flats to Los Alamos National Laboratory [5, 26]
• 1996 – Los Alamos National Laboratory began beryllium pit production operations relocated from Rocky Flats [26]
• 1998 – Major IARC review classified beryllium and beryllium compounds as Category 1 carcinogens [7]
• 1999 – U.S. Department of Energy implemented new beryllium exposure policy following scientific findings about disease risks [13]
• 2001 – OSHA began work on new beryllium standard after scientific community demonstrated existing limits were inadequate [13]
• 2003 – Spitzer Space Telescope launched with 85cm diameter beryllium primary mirror cooled to 5.5K [30]
• 2006 – ITER fusion reactor project partners formally agreed to fund construction, planning to use beryllium for first wall material [14]
• 2010 – Spor Mountain, Utah mine produced over 85% of beryllium excavated worldwide; ITER construction began in France with beryllium planned as plasma-facing material [2, 15]
• 2011 – European beryllium consumption estimated at 30.2 metric tons in major countries [6]
• 2012 – Global beryllium production reached 230 metric tons [23]
• 2013 – US Department of Energy designated beryllium as strategic and critical material [33]
• 2014 – Global beryllium production peaked at 337 metric tons, highest in the decade [23]
• 2015 – US beryl production reached 5,100 metric tons; Materion began manufacturing beryllium mirrors for James Webb Space Telescope [24, 31]
• 2016 – Beryllium mirror segments for James Webb Space Telescope underwent cryogenic testing at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center [32]
• 2017 – NASA continued testing beryllium mirrors at cryogenic temperatures down to 50K for James Webb Space Telescope [32]
• 2018 – OSHA’s updated beryllium standard went into effect, lowering permissible exposure limit to 0.2 μg/m³ [1, 13]
• 2019 – US produced 170 metric tons of beryllium domestically and imported 45 metric tons [33]
• 2020 – NASA’s Advanced Mirror System Demonstrator program selected beryllium for James Webb Space Telescope mirrors due to cryogenic stability [16]
• 2021 – James Webb Space Telescope launched with 18 beryllium mirror segments made from beryllium mined at Spor Mountain, Utah [17]
• 2022 – James Webb Space Telescope released first images using its beryllium mirrors operating at 30K (-406°F) [18]
• 2023 – ITER project announced switching first wall material from beryllium to tungsten amid construction delays; United States produced estimated 190 metric tons of beryllium, maintaining position as world’s largest beryllium producer [19, 20]
• 2024 – Global beryllium market size estimated at 324.68 tons with projected growth to 405.03 tons by 2030 [21]
• 2025 – Current worldwide annual beryllium production approximately 220 tons, with three countries processing beryllium ores: United States, Kazakhstan, and China [1, 22]

Final Thoughts

The history of beryllium reveals a material that has profoundly influenced modern technology while teaching us critical lessons about occupational health and safety. From Vauquelin’s sweet-tasting discovery to the bitter reality of berylliosis among early workers, beryllium’s dual nature as both invaluable resource and potential hazard has shaped how we approach industrial materials.

Today, as beryllium enables humanity to peer into the universe’s distant past through the James Webb Space Telescope and promises to help unlock fusion energy’s potential, we continue to balance its remarkable properties against the need for stringent safety measures. The element that began as a curiosity in emeralds now stands at the forefront of human technological achievement, reminding us that our most powerful tools often demand our greatest respect and responsibility.

Thanks for reading!

References

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[2] Facts About Beryllium | Live Science – https://www.livescience.com/28641-beryllium.html

[3] WebElements Periodic Table » Beryllium » historical information – https://webelements.com/beryllium/history.html

[4] Types, Characteristics and Comparisons of Beryllium Copper – https://www.iqsdirectory.com/articles/copper/beryllium-copper.html

[5] Beryllium Copper – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics – https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/beryllium-copper

[6] Facts & Figures | BeST – https://www.beryllium.eu/facts-figures

[7] Elements in focus: beryllium – Science in School – https://www.scienceinschool.org/article/2018/elements-spotlight-beryllium/

[8] Beryllium – wikidoc – https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Beryllium

[9] Beryllium – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics – https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/beryllium

[10] Epidemiologic and Clinical Studies of Beryllium Sensitization and Chronic Beryllium Disease – Managing Health Effects of Beryllium Exposure – NCBI Bookshelf – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK214767/

[11] Beryllium Fluoride – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics – https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/beryllium-fluoride

[12] Summary of historical beryllium uses and airborne concentration levels at Los Alamos National Laboratory – PubMed – https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12909539/

[13] Beryllium – https://periodic.lanl.gov/4.shtml

[14] Genetic susceptibility and immune-mediated destruction in beryllium-induced disease – ScienceDirect – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1471490605002048

[15] Lee Newman’s career in beryllium exposure illustrates the elements of public health – https://coloradosph.cuanschutz.edu/research-and-practice/centers-programs/chwe/about-us/newsroom/public-health-main-site-news/lee-newman’s-career-in-beryllium-exposure-illustrates-the-elements-of-public-health

[16] ITER – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITER

[17] ITER delays revision of project’s timeline – World Nuclear News – https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/ITER-delays-revision-of-project-s-timeline

[18] Webb’s Mirrors – NASA Science – https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/webbs-mirrors/

[19] Digging Beryllium for James Webb – https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148574/digging-beryllium-for-james-webb

[20] James Webb Space Telescope – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope

[21] ITER fusion reactor hit by massive decade-long delay and €5bn price hike – Physics World – https://physicsworld.com/a/iter-fusion-reactor-hit-by-massive-decade-long-delay-and-e5bn-price-hike/

[22] Global beryllium production by country 2023 | Statista – https://www.statista.com/statistics/264925/world-beryllium-production/

[23] Beryllium Market Size | Mordor Intelligence – https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/beryllium-market

[24] Beryllium Statistics and Information | U.S. Geological Survey – https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/beryllium-statistics-and-information

[28] Nuclear weapon design – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design

[29] Pit (nuclear weapon) – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pit_(nuclear_weapon)

[30] This New Ocean – Ch6-4 – https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4201/ch6-4.htm

[31] Before And After Apollo: Materions 60 Years In Space – https://materion.com/about/new-at-materion/before-and-after-apollo-materions-60-years-in-space

[32] Space Shuttle thermal protection system – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_thermal_protection_system

[33] Spitzer Space Telescope – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitzer_Space_Telescope

[34] ITER – the way to new energy – https://www.iter.org/

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[37] Optical Telescope Element – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_Telescope_Element

[38] Beryllium – Overview | Occupational Safety and Health Administration – https://www.osha.gov/beryllium