A History Of Germanium

Posted on by Brian Colwell

Germanium, element 32 on the periodic table, stands as one of the most remarkable success stories in the history of chemistry and materials science. From its theoretical prediction to its pivotal role in launching the semiconductor age, germanium has repeatedly transformed our technological landscape. This metalloid element, whose existence was first prophesied before its discovery, became the foundation stone of modern electronics when it enabled the first transistor on a winter evening in 1947. Today, germanium continues to evolve, finding new applications in fiber optics, infrared technology, solar cells, and even quantum computing. Its journey from a missing piece in Mendeleev’s periodic table to a critical material in 21st-century technology exemplifies how fundamental scientific discovery can reshape civilization.

Be sure to check out all other critical raw materials (CRMs), as well.

A History Of Germanium

The story of germanium intertwines theoretical chemistry, mineralogy, and technological innovation across more than 150 years. From Mendeleev’s bold prediction of “ekasilicon” to the modern applications in quantum photonics, germanium has consistently demonstrated its unique position as a bridge between pure science and transformative technology. Its discovery validated the periodic table, its semiconducting properties birthed the electronics age, and its optical characteristics continue to enable cutting-edge applications from deep-space telescopes to high-speed internet communications.

Chronology

  • 1869 – Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existence of germanium (element 32), which he called “ekasilicon” (meaning “below silicon” in the periodic table), estimating its atomic weight would be about 72 and predicting it would have properties similar to silicon [1]
  • 1871 – Mendeleev refined his predictions for germanium (his “ekasilicon”), providing remarkably accurate estimates of its density (5.5 g/cm³) and other properties [2]
  • Mid-1885 – The mineral argyrodite was discovered at a mine near Freiberg, Saxony; this mineral would soon be found to contain germanium [3]
  • February 6, 1886 – Clemens Winkler at Freiberg University discovered germanium in the mineral argyrodite, along with silver and sulfur [1]
  • 1886 – Winkler successfully isolated germanium and initially considered naming it “neptunium” before settling on “germanium” after his homeland, Germany [3]
  • 1887 – Winkler published his findings on germanium in Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, preparing several germanium compounds including germanium tetrachloride and tetraethylgermane [4]
  • 1920s – Scientists conducted extensive research on the electrical properties of germanium [5]
  • 1930s – Limited commercial production of germanium began, primarily for specialized applications [6]
  • Early 1940s – During World War II, germanium was used in small amounts for special electronic devices, mostly diodes [1]
  • 1942 – Herbert Mataré at Telefunken began experiments with germanium “Duodiode” for German radar equipment [7]
  • 1945 – Germanium’s properties as an electronic semiconductor were recognized, marking its transition from obscurity to technological importance [1]
  • 1945-1946 – Annual worldwide germanium production was only a few hundred kilograms [1]
  • December 16, 1947 – John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs achieved the first successful semiconductor amplification using germanium, creating the point-contact transistor [8]
  • December 23, 1947 – Bardeen and Brattain demonstrated the germanium point-contact transistor to Bell Labs officials [8]
  • January 1948 – William Shockley conceived the germanium junction transistor design [9]
  • June 1948 – Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker independently invented a germanium point-contact transistor in Paris [10]
  • June 30, 1948 – Bell Labs publicly announced the germanium transistor at a press conference in New York City [7]
  • 1948 – Bell Labs began producing the Type-A germanium transistor in metal cartridge packages [8]
  • Mid-1949 – Thousands of germanium “transistrons” were manufactured for use in the French telephone system [10]
  • 1950 – Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks at Bell Labs fabricated Shockley’s first germanium junction transistor [11]
  • 1950-1951 – William Pfann at Bell Labs pioneered zone refining technique for germanium, achieving ultra-pure samples with impurities as low as one part in ten billion [12]
  • Early 1950s – First extrinsic germanium photoconductive detectors were reported [13]
  • 1951 – First commercial germanium junction transistors entered production [11]
  • July 4, 1951 – Bell Labs announced the germanium junction transistor [9]
  • 1952 – AT&T licensed germanium transistor technology to other companies [11]
  • 1952 – Intermetall company was co-founded in Germany to manufacture germanium diodes and transistors [10]
  • 1952 – First commercial application of germanium transistors in Sonotone hearing aids in the United States [11]
  • November 16, 1953 – First prototype transistorized computer using germanium transistors demonstrated at Manchester University, England [11]
  • 1954 – Texas Instruments began commercial production of germanium transistors [9]
  • 1954 – Regency TR-1, the first transistor radio using four germanium transistors, was introduced [11]
  • 1955 – First silicon-germanium alloys were obtained [1]
  • 1956 – John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley received the Nobel Prize in Physics for the germanium transistor invention [14]
  • Late 1950s – Annual worldwide germanium production reached 40 metric tons [1]
  • 1958 – Geballe and Hull demonstrated that enriched germanium-74 single crystal had 3 times higher peak thermal conductivity than natural germanium [6]
  • Early 1960s – First guitar effects pedals using germanium transistors were developed, including the Maestro FZ-1 (1962) [1]
  • 1960s – Silicon began replacing germanium in most transistor applications due to germanium’s inferior temperature performance [9]
  • 1966 – Dallas-Arbiter Fuzz Face guitar pedal using germanium transistors was introduced [1]
  • Early 1970s – Germanium transistor market declined as silicon dominated semiconductor applications [1]
  • 1970s – Germanium found new applications in infrared optics and detectors [15]
  • Late 1970s – Development of high-purity germanium gamma-ray detectors for nuclear physics [16]
  • Early 1980s – NASA began developing germanium-based far infrared detectors for space telescopes [6]
  • 1980s – Germanium became critical for fiber optic communications due to its high refractive index [17]
  • 1980s – Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) utilized germanium far-infrared detectors [6]
  • Late 1980s – Germanium dioxide began use as polymerization catalyst for PET plastic production [1]
  • 1990s – Development of germanium-based substrates for high-efficiency multi-junction solar cells [18]
  • 2000 – Approximately 80% of world germanium production was used for fiber optics and infrared applications [4]
  • 2005 – First germanium-based material discovered to become superconductor in strong electromagnetic field [1]
  • 2006 – Development of germanium MOS technology for enhanced infrared detectors [19]
  • 2007 – Research on germanium quantum wells for high-performance silicon photonics modulators [20]
  • 2011 – Germanium-on-glass solar cells demonstrated with 3.7% efficiency under concentrated light [21]
  • 2012 – Advanced germanium nanowire applications developed for electronics [4]
  • 2013 – Research on zone refining processes enhanced germanium purity to 13N (99.9999999999999%) [22]
  • 2015 – U.S. Geological Survey highlighted germanium as critical mineral for fiber optics and solar applications [23]
  • 2016 – Development of germanium-based thermistor devices for operation at milliKelvin temperatures [6]
  • 2017 – Germanium nanopyramid structures developed for enhanced photovoltaic applications [24]
  • 2018 – Germanium-based integrated photonics extended to mid-infrared applications beyond 8 μm [25]
  • 2019 – Red Dog Mine in Alaska recognized as globally significant germanium source [18]
  • 2020s – Silicon-germanium (SiGe) technology resurged for high-speed transistors in wireless devices [26]
  • 2021 – “Jiuzhang 2.0” photonic quantum computer utilized germanium-based detectors [27]
  • 2021 – Enhanced amorphous germanium solar cells developed for agrivoltaic applications [28]
  • 2022 – Cross-cone germanium nanostructures achieved 10.3% efficiency in solar cells [24]
  • 2023 – China implemented export restrictions on germanium, causing 38% price increase by 2024 [29]
  • 2024 – Google’s Willow quantum chip demonstrated with germanium-based components [30]
  • 2024 – Germanium photodiodes integrated in photonic quantum computer architectures [31]
  • 2024 – Research on germanium-based alternatives to address supply chain concerns [29]
  • 2025 – Photonic quantum computers using germanium detectors show promise for AI applications [32]
  • 2025 – Advanced germanium-based double-heterojunction solar cells approach 38.6% efficiency [33]

Final Thoughts

As we trace germanium’s trajectory from Mendeleev’s theoretical prediction to its current role in quantum computing and renewable energy, we witness a material that has repeatedly redefined technological possibilities. Unlike its introduction, which validated scientific theory, germanium’s ongoing story reveals how a single element can catalyze multiple technological revolutions. While silicon may have displaced germanium in conventional electronics, germanium has found irreplaceable niches where its unique properties—from infrared transparency to quantum coherence—make it indispensable. As we face challenges in sustainable energy, quantum information processing, and global communications, germanium continues to offer solutions that no other material can provide. Its history reminds us that in science, yesterday’s breakthrough often becomes tomorrow’s foundation, and elements once considered curiosities can become cornerstones of civilization’s advance.

Thanks for reading!

References

[1] Germanium – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium

[2] WebElements Periodic Table » Germanium » historical information – https://www.webelements.com/germanium/history.html

[3] Discovery of Germanium – https://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Disc-of-Germanium.html

[4] Germanium | History, Uses, Facts, Physical & Chemical Characteristics – https://periodic-table.com/germanium/

[5] Historical Facts of the Element Germanium – https://www.waferworld.com/post/historical-facts-of-the-element-germanium

[6] Germanium: From its discovery to SiGe devices – ScienceDirect – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1369800106001326

[7] History of the transistor – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_transistor

[8] 1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor | The Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum – https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/invention-of-the-point-contact-transistor/

[9] The Lost History of the Transistor – IEEE Spectrum – https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-lost-history-of-the-transistor

[10] 1948: The European Transistor Invention | The Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum – https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/the-european-transistor-invention/

[11] Inventing the Transistor – CHM Revolution – https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/digital-logic/12/273

[12] 1951: Development of Zone Refining | The Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum – https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/development-of-zone-refining/

[13] Infrared detectors: status and trends – ScienceDirect – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0079672702000241

[14] Milestones:Invention of the First Transistor at Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1947 – Engineering and Technology History Wiki – https://ethw.org/Milestones:Invention_of_the_First_Transistor_at_Bell_Telephone_Laboratories,_Inc.,_1947

[15] Infrared detectors: an overview – ScienceDirect – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1350449502001408

[16] Recent Developments in the Fabrication and Operation of Germanium Detectors | Annual Reviews – https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.nucl.56.080805.140525

[17] Germanium – the Backbone of Fast Fibre-optic Internet – https://strategicmetalsinvest.com/germanium-the-backbone-of-fast-fibre-optic-internet/

[18] Fiber-optics, solar drive germanium demand – North of 60 Mining News – https://www.miningnewsnorth.com/story/2019/06/01/critical-minerals/fiber-optics-solar-drive-germanium-demand/5751.html

[19] Germanium MOS technology for infra-red detectors – ScienceDirect – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168900206021929

[20] Germanium Quantum Wells for High-Performance Modulators in Silicon Photonics | Features | Sep 2007 | Photonics Spectra – https://www.photonics.com/Articles/Germanium_Quantum_Wells_for_High-Performance/a30705

[21] (PDF) Germanium-on-glass solar cells – https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236900468_Germanium-on-glass_solar_cells

[22] Development and morphological analysis of the zone refining process for high purity germanium – ScienceDirect – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369800124008205

[23] Facts About Germanium | Live Science – https://www.livescience.com/29520-germanium.html

[24] Design Simulation and Optimization of Germanium-Based Solar Cells with Micro-Nano Cross-Cone Absorption Structure – https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6412/12/11/1653

[25] Germanium-based integrated photonics from near- to mid-infrared applications – https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/nanoph-2018-0113/html?lang=en

[26] Germanium Properties, History and Applications – https://www.thoughtco.com/metal-profile-germanium-2340135

[27] Photonic Quantum Computers – https://arxiv.org/html/2409.08229v1

[28] Germanium-based solar cell tech for agrivoltaics – pv magazine International – https://www.pv-magazine.com/2021/01/15/germanium-based-solar-cell-tech-for-agrivoltaics/

[29] Optics industry addresses the germanium issue | Laser Focus World – https://www.laserfocusworld.com/optics/article/55127439/lightpath-technologies-inc-optics-industry-addresses-the-germanium-issue

[30] 8 Best Quantum Computing Stocks to Buy in 2025 | The Motley Fool – https://www.fool.com/investing/stock-market/market-sectors/information-technology/ai-stocks/quantum-computing-stocks/

[31] Scaling and networking a modular photonic quantum computer | Nature – https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08406-9

[32] Photonic quantum chips are making AI smarter and greener | ScienceDaily – https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/06/250608222002.htm

[33] Design guidelines for a highly efficient high-purity germanium (HPGe)-based double-heterojunction solar cell – ScienceDirect – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0030399221003947