A History Of Arsenic

Posted on by Brian Colwell

Throughout human history, few substances have played such a paradoxical role as arsenic. Known simultaneously as the “king of poisons” and the “saviour of syphilis,” arsenic has woven its way through millennia of human civilization, leaving an indelible mark on metallurgy, medicine, murder, and manufacturing. From its earliest use in Bronze Age alloys to its modern application in cutting-edge cancer treatments, arsenic’s story is one of scientific discovery, technological innovation, medical breakthroughs, and tragic poisonings. This complex narrative spans continents and cultures, revealing how a single element has shaped human society in ways both beneficial and deadly, transforming from an accidental impurity in ancient copper ores to a precisely targeted pharmaceutical agent in contemporary medicine.

Be sure to check out all other critical raw materials (CRMs), as well.

A History Of Arsenic

The history of arsenic is a chronicle of humanity’s evolving relationship with one of nature’s most notorious elements. From its accidental discovery in ancient metallurgy to its deliberate use as both a poison and a medicine, arsenic has played a pivotal role in technological advancement, medical innovation, and criminal intrigue across civilizations and centuries.

Chronology

  • 5th millennium BC: The earliest known arsenical bronze artifacts appear on the Iranian plateau, marking the beginning of deliberate arsenic use in metallurgy [1]
  • 4th millennium BC: Arsenical copper production is clearly established at Değirmentepe and Norşuntepe in ancient Anatolia, with evidence of intentional arsenic alloying [1]
  • 4th millennium BC: The Maykop culture of the North Caucasus independently discovers arsenical bronze, becoming one of the earliest producers of bronze technology [2]
  • 4000 BC: Ancient Egyptians possibly discover that mixing copper with arsenic creates a stronger, harder metal better suited for weapons and tools than pure copper [3]
  • Early Bronze Age (3300-1200 BC): Large-scale production of arsenical copper and speiss (iron-arsenic alloy) occurs at Arisman, Iran, with an estimated 20 tons of slag evidence [4]
  • 4th century BC: Ancient Greeks and Romans begin using arsenic sulfide minerals (orpiment and realgar) for various purposes, with mineral forms of arsenic becoming known [5]
  • 370 BC: Hippocrates describes abdominal colic in a metal miner exposed to arsenic, documenting toxic properties of arsenic and using arsenic sulfides to treat ulcers and abscesses [6, 7]
  • 4th century BC: Theophrastus of Erebus describes toxic properties of arsenic and mercury in metal workers [6]
  • 300 AD: Zosimos describes roasting sandarach (realgar, an arsenic sulfide) to obtain “cloud of arsenic” (arsenic trioxide), which he then reduces to gray arsenic metal [8]
  • 1st century AD: Pedanius Dioscorides, Greek physician in Emperor Nero’s court, describes arsenic as a poison and documents its use in poisoning Britannicus with arsenic in 55 AD [5, 6]
  • 70-90 AD: Dioscorides uses arsenic as an antiseptic and depilatory, describing arsenic as having “burning, strong, biting strength” [9]
  • 129-210 AD: Greek physician Galen recommends arsenic sulfide for treating ulcers [7]
  • 200 BCE: Arsenic sulfides included in Chinese traditional medicine’s Shennong Materia Medica [7]
  • 263 BC: Chinese Nei Jing Treaty records use of arsenic pills for treatment of periodic fever [7]
  • 581-682 AD: Chinese physician Sun Si-Miao uses combination of realgar, orpiment and arsenic trioxide for malaria treatment [7]
  • 600 BC – 1500s AD: Arsenic becomes known as the “poison of kings” and “king of poisons” throughout the Roman Empire, Middle Ages, and Renaissance [5, 10]
  • 1250 AD: Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great) isolates pure arsenic by heating soap with orpiment (As2S3), becoming the first element isolated since antiquity [5, 11, 12, 13]
  • 1400s: Arsenical compounds used against the plague by Angelus Salva [9]
  • 1493-1541: Paracelsus writes first precise directions for preparation of metallic arsenic and establishes the concept of dose-response relationship in toxicology [5, 10, 14]
  • 1500s: Jean de Gorris uses arsenic as a sudorific agent to relieve fever [9]
  • 1518-1593: Chinese physician Shi-Zhen Li writes Ben Cao Gang Mu, describing arsenic trioxide use for various diseases [7]
  • 1600s: Arsenic used as antimalarial agent [9]
  • 1649: German pharmacist Johann Schroeder first clearly identifies arsenic as a free substance [15]
  • 1700: Rosinus Lentilus makes first observations on arsenic use in malaria treatment [16]
  • 1775: Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovers way to change arsenic trioxide to arsine gas and invents Scheele’s Green, an arsenic-based pigment [17, 18]
  • 1786: British physician Thomas Fowler presents Fowler’s solution (1% potassium arsenite, an arsenic compound), used as cure-all tonic for malaria, syphilis, asthma, psoriasis, and other conditions [11, 19, 20, 21, 22]
  • 1787: German physician Johann Metzger develops process creating arsenic mirror from arsenic oxide [23]
  • 1806: Dr. Valentine Rose first uses arsenic detection techniques to determine arsenic poisoning in a patient [23]
  • 1812: First commercial British arsenic produced at Perran-ar-Worthal [24]
  • 1814: Wilhelm Sattler develops Paris Green (Schweinfurt green), an arsenic-based pigment, using arsenic and verdigris for more steadfast green pigment [25, 18]
  • 1830s: Marsh test development begins with James Marsh’s work on arsenic detection [26, 27]
  • 1832: James Marsh called to testify in John Bodle arsenic poisoning trial but yellow arsenic precipitate deteriorates before presentation [26, 27, 17]
  • 1834: British wallpaper production reaches 1,222,753 rolls annually, many containing arsenic pigments [25]
  • 1836: James Marsh publishes improved arsenic detection test in Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, creating first reliable analytical test for arsenic [26, 27, 17, 28]
  • 1840: Marsh test for arsenic first publicly used in Lafarge arsenic poisoning case in Tulle, France, with Mathieu Orfila demonstrating its effectiveness [17]
  • 1850s: Initial reports of arsenic wallpaper poisoning appear in medical literature [25]
  • 1858: Bradford confectioner accidentally adds arsenic instead of sugar to peppermints, killing 21 children [29]
  • 1859: Pierre Antoine Béchamp synthesizes first significant organoarsenical drug (atoxyl), an arsenic-based compound [20, 16]
  • 1861: Death of 19-year-old Matilda Scheueur from dusting artificial foliage with arsenic pigment increases public awareness of arsenic toxicity [18]
  • 1862: Children die in east London after tearing down wallpaper and licking green arsenic pigment off surface [25]
  • 1865: Fowler’s solution (arsenic-based medicine) begins use as leukemia treatment [19]
  • 1867: Paris Green (arsenic-based compound) officially recognized as world’s first chemical insecticide [30]
  • 1870s: William Morris bows to public pressure and begins producing arsenic-free wallpapers [31, 32]
  • 1874: British wallpaper production reaches 32,000,000 rolls annually, many containing arsenic [25]
  • 1878: Fowler’s solution (arsenic compound) found effective for leukemia treatment at Boston City Hospital [7, 33]
  • 1879: Queen Victoria has green arsenic-containing wallpaper removed from Buckingham Palace after visiting dignitary becomes ill [25]
  • 1883 & 1895: British Factory Workshop Acts institute regulations for workers exposed to arsenic [25]
  • 1890s: Italian children die from arsenic in Paris Green wallpaper when mold releases arsine gas [10]
  • 1891: Italian chemist Bartolomeo Gosio proves toxic arsenic gas production from combination of arsenic pigments and fungi [29]
  • 1893: Gosio publishes results on “Gosio gas” containing trimethylarsine (arsenic compound) [18]
  • 1897: Process of fungus converting arsenate dyes to toxic trimethylarsine gas (arsenic compound) discovered [34]
  • 1909: Sahachiro Hata discovers antisyphilitic activity of arsenic compound 606 in Paul Ehrlich’s laboratory [35, 36]
  • 1910: Paul Ehrlich announces Salvarsan (arsphenamine, arsenic compound 606) as treatment for syphilis at Congress for Internal Medicine [35, 37, 36, 38]
  • 1910: Hoechst AG begins manufacturing Salvarsan (arsenic-based drug), which becomes world’s first blockbuster drug [37, 39]
  • 1912: Neosalvarsan (neoarsphenamine), improved arsenic-based drug, developed as more soluble version of Salvarsan [35, 37]
  • 1923: 2 million doses of arsenic-based drugs Salvarsan and Neosalvarsan produced annually in United States [36]
  • 1930s: Arsenic compounds including Scheele’s green used as insecticides [18]
  • 1940: German development of Lewisite, arsenic-containing chemical warfare agent, leads to British development of BAL (British Anti-Lewisite) antidote [5]
  • 1940s: Arsenic-based drug Salvarsan replaced by penicillin for syphilis treatment [35, 37, 40]
  • 1940s: Arsenic-treated wood preservatives like chromated copper arsenate (CCA) become widely used [11]
  • 1945: Trimethylarsine gas (arsenic compound) from wallpaper formally discovered and named [34]
  • 1950s: Arsenic trioxide use for leukemia declines with advent of cytotoxic chemotherapies [9]
  • 1960s: Production of emerald green (Paris green) arsenic-based paint finally banned [24]
  • 1970s: Chinese physicians begin using arsenic trioxide for acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) treatment [41, 42]
  • 1990s: Organoarsenical drugs for intestinal parasites withdrawn in USA due to carcinogenic effects [20]
  • 1997: Clinical efficacy of arsenic trioxide in relapsed APL patients published [43, 44]
  • 2000: FDA approves arsenic trioxide for patients with refractory or relapsed APL [45]
  • 2001: FDA approves arsenic trioxide (Trisenox) for acute promyelocytic leukemia [19]
  • 2002: EPA revises Safe Drinking Water Act, reducing acceptable arsenic levels from 50 ppb to 10 ppb [34]
  • 2003: Manufacturers voluntarily recall residential wood treated with chromated copper arsenate (arsenic compound) [11, 46]
  • 2005: Mass spectrometric analysis reveals Salvarsan’s (arsenic drug) true chemical structure as mixture of cyclic species rather than As=As double bond [35, 39]
  • 2008: Bacteria discovered using arsenites (arsenic compounds) as electron donors in photosynthesis without oxygen [8]
  • 2013: Phase 3 trial shows arsenic trioxide plus ATRA superior to chemotherapy for low-to-intermediate risk APL [47]
  • 2018: FDA approves arsenic trioxide plus tretinoin for first-line treatment of newly diagnosed low-risk APL [45]
  • 2024: German libraries block access to 19th century books to check for arsenic poisoning in bindings [30]

Final Thoughts

The journey of arsenic through human history reveals the complex relationship between scientific progress and human welfare. What began as an accidental discovery in ancient metallurgy evolved into deliberate applications that both saved and destroyed lives. From the Bronze Age smiths who unknowingly poisoned themselves while advancing civilization, to Victorian families surrounded by deadly green wallpapers, to modern oncologists wielding arsenic as a precision weapon against cancer, this element has consistently challenged our understanding of benefit versus risk. Today, as arsenic trioxide provides hope to leukemia patients while environmental arsenic contamination threatens millions globally, we see that this ancient element continues to embody the fundamental duality of human technological achievement—our capacity to harness nature’s power for both healing and harm. The history of arsenic ultimately serves as a profound reminder that knowledge itself is neither good nor evil, but rather defined by the wisdom and ethics with which we apply it.

Thanks for reading!

References

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[2] Bronze Age – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age

[3] Copper: An Ancient Metal | Dartmouth Toxic Metals – https://sites.dartmouth.edu/toxmetal/more-metals/copper-an-ancient-metal/

[4] Large scale smelting of speiss and arsenical copper at Early Bronze Age Arisman, Iran – ScienceDirect – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440312000210

[5] Arsenic: A Murderous History | Dartmouth Toxic Metals – https://sites.dartmouth.edu/toxmetal/arsenic/arsenic-a-murderous-history/

[6] Arsenic – the “Poison of Kings” and the “Saviour of Syphilis” – JMVH – https://jmvh.org/article/arsenic-the-poison-of-kings-and-the-saviour-of-syphilis/

[7] Arsenic in medicine: past, present and future – PMC – https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8860286/

[8] Arsenic – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic

[9] Fowler’s Solution – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics – https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/fowlers-solution

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[11] Facts About Arsenic | Live Science – https://www.livescience.com/29522-arsenic.html

[12] WebElements Periodic Table » Arsenic » historical information – https://www.webelements.com/arsenic/history.html

[13] Albertus Magnus (1193/1206 – 1280) – https://www.asmalldoseoftoxicology.org/magnus

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[16] (PDF) Arsenic-Based Drugs: From Fowler’s Solution to Modern Anticancer Chemotherapy – https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226853307_Arsenic-Based_Drugs_From_Fowler’s_Solution_to_Modern_Anticancer_Chemotherapy

[17] Marsh test – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsh_test

[18] Scheele’s green – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheele’s_green

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[25] Death by Wallpaper: The Alluring Arsenic Colors that Poisoned the Victorian Age – https://hyperallergic.com/329747/death-by-wallpaper-alluring-arsenic-colors-poisoned-the-victorian-age/

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