A History Of Tellurium

Posted on by Brian Colwell

Tellurium stands as one of Earth’s rarest elements, a silvery-white metalloid whose scarcity rivals that of platinum yet whose applications have proven essential to modern technology. From its discovery in Transylvanian gold mines to its critical role in solar energy and advanced materials, tellurium’s journey through history reflects humanity’s evolving understanding of the elements and our increasing ability to harness their unique properties. This enigmatic element, named after the Earth itself, has emerged from centuries of obscurity to become a strategic material in the twenty-first century, powering innovations in renewable energy, telecommunications, and space exploration while maintaining its status as one of the most intriguing members of the periodic table.

Be sure to check out all other critical raw materials (CRMs), as well.

A History Of Tellurium

The history of tellurium spans over two centuries, from its initial discovery in the gold mines of Transylvania to its modern applications in cutting-edge technologies. This metalloid element, though rare in Earth’s crust, has played increasingly important roles in metallurgy, electronics, and renewable energy. The chronology of tellurium reveals a fascinating progression from a misidentified curiosity to a critical component in solar panels and advanced materials, with notable episodes including streets literally paved with gold-tellurium compounds and the recent astronomical confirmation of its cosmic origins in neutron star collisions.

Chronology

  • 1700s – Scientists encountered a substance in various ores with both metallic and non-metallic properties, calling it “aurum paradoxum” (paradoxical gold) or “metallum problematum” (problem metal) [1]
  • 1782 – Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein discovered tellurium in a gold ore from mines in Kleinschlatten (now Zlatna), Transylvania, Romania, initially believing it contained antimony [2]
  • 1783 – Müller von Reichenstein concluded after extensive testing that the ore contained a new element similar to antimony after conducting over fifty tests over three years [2]
  • 1789 – Hungarian scientist Pál Kitaibel independently discovered tellurium in an ore from Deutsch-Pilsen that had been regarded as argentiferous molybdenite, but gave credit to Müller [2]
  • 1796 – Müller von Reichenstein sent a sample of the new element to German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in Berlin for analysis [3]
  • 1798 – Martin Heinrich Klaproth isolated tellurium from the mineral calaverite and named it after the Latin word “tellus” meaning Earth, publicly confirming the existence of the new element [2]
  • 1832 – Jöns Jacob Berzelius made a detailed study of tellurium and its compounds in Stockholm, Sweden, determining it was a metal that belonged in the same group as sulfur and selenium [1]
  • 1861 – Calaverite (gold telluride, AuTe2) was first discovered in Calaveras County, California [4]
  • 1868 – The mineral calaverite was officially named after Calaveras County, California [4]
  • 1893 – During the Kalgoorlie gold rush in Western Australia, miners discarded large amounts of calaverite mistaking it for pyrite or “fool’s gold,” using it to fill potholes and build sidewalks [2]
  • 1896 – The realization that the discarded material in Kalgoorlie was calaverite, a telluride of gold, sparked a second gold rush that included mining the streets [2]
  • Early 1920s – Thomas Midgley Jr. found tellurium prevented engine knocking when added to fuel but ruled it out due to the difficult-to-eradicate smell [2]
  • 1950s – Research in cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltaic technology began, with initial efficiencies of 5-6% [5]
  • 1960s – The growth of thermoelectric applications for tellurium began, particularly as bismuth telluride, along with its use in free-machining steel alloys [2]
  • 1961 – Patent filed for free machining steel containing both lead and tellurium, showing enhanced machinability [6]
  • 1972 – Bonnet and Rabenhorst designed the CdS/CdTe heterojunction, enabling the manufacturing of CdTe solar cells with 6% efficiency [7]
  • 1982 – CdTe solar cells reached commercial viability with improving efficiencies [5]
  • 1984 – Astrophysicists identified tellurium as the universe’s most abundant element with an atomic number over 40 [5]
  • 1999 – Harold McMaster sold Solar Cells Inc. (later First Solar) to True North Partners, marking a turning point in commercial CdTe solar panel production [5]
  • 2000s – CdTe thin-film solar cells overtook thermoelectric applications as the dominant use of tellurium [2]
  • 2002 – First Solar began commercial production of CdTe solar panels [5]
  • 2005 – First Solar’s production reached 25 megawatts of CdTe panels [5]
  • 2007 – Global tellurium production reached 135 metric tons according to USGS [5]
  • 2013 – First Solar acquired GE’s thin film solar panel technology in exchange for a 1.8% stake in the company [5]
  • 2016 – First Solar achieved average CdTe module efficiency of 16.4% and record cell efficiency of 22.1% [5]
  • 2017 – Detection of gravitational waves from neutron star merger GW170817 provided first observational opportunity to study heavy element creation [8]
  • 2021 – Rio Tinto announced investment of $2.9 million to build a tellurium recovery plant at its Kennecott Mine in Utah with 20 metric ton annual capacity [9]
  • 2022 – Rio Tinto’s Kennecott tellurium plant began operation, creating a new North American supply chain for the critical mineral [10]
  • 2022 – Global tellurium production reached approximately 640 metric tons according to USGS estimates [11]
  • March 7, 2023 – NASA’s Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope detected GRB 230307A, the second brightest gamma-ray burst in 50 years of observations [12]
  • October 2023 – Scientists using the James Webb Space Telescope detected tellurium spectral lines in the kilonova from GRB 230307A, providing first direct evidence of tellurium production in neutron star mergers [12]
  • 2023 – Astronomers confirmed tellurium creation during neutron star collisions, with detection of tellurium equivalent to 300 Earth masses produced in a single merger event [2]
  • 2024 – Research published showing tellurium production in neutron star merger GRB 230307A, confirming theoretical predictions about heavy element synthesis [13]
  • 2025 – First Solar reported domestic manufacturing capacity of 9.4 GWdc per year for CdTe solar panels in the United States [11]
  • 2025 – U.S. Department of Energy released Cadmium Telluride PV Perspective Paper outlining priorities for CdTe technology advancement [11]

Final Thoughts

Tellurium’s remarkable journey from an unrecognized element discarded in gold mining waste to a critical component of renewable energy technology exemplifies how scientific understanding transforms our relationship with Earth’s resources. As we face the challenges of climate change and sustainable development, tellurium has emerged as an unexpected ally, enabling efficient solar energy capture and waste heat recovery. The recent astronomical discoveries confirming its creation in neutron star mergers add a cosmic dimension to this terrestrial element’s story, reminding us that the materials powering our clean energy future were forged in some of the universe’s most violent events. With growing demand for tellurium-based technologies and limited global supply, the element that was once mistaken for fool’s gold may prove to be one of the most valuable resources of the twenty-first century, challenging us to develop responsible extraction, efficient recycling, and innovative applications that maximize its contribution to a sustainable future.

Thanks for reading!

References

[1] Tellurium – https://www.chemicool.com/elements/tellurium.html

[2] Tellurium – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tellurium

[3] Tellurium Facts, Symbol, Discovery, Properties, Uses – https://www.chemistrylearner.com/tellurium.html

[4] Calaverite – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calaverite

[5] Cadmium telluride photovoltaics – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics

[6] US3152889A – Free machining steel with lead and tellurium – Google Patents – https://patents.google.com/patent/US3152889

[7] What Are CdTe Solar Panels? How Do They Compare to Other Panels? – https://solarbuy.com/solar-101/cdte-cadmium-telluride-solar-panels/

[8] Neutron star merger – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_star_merger

[9] Rio Tinto to build new tellurium plant at Kennecott Mine – Mining Engineering Online – Official Publication of SME – https://me.smenet.org/rio-tinto-to-build-new-tellurium-plant-at-kennecott-mine/

[10] Tellurium: secret clean energy ingredient – North of 60 Mining News – https://www.miningnewsnorth.com/story/2023/09/14/critical-minerals-alliances-2023/tellurium-secret-clean-energy-ingredient/8093.html

[11] Cadmium Telluride Photovoltaics Perspective Paper | Department of Energy – https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/cadmium-telluride-photovoltaics-perspective-paper

[12] NASA’s Webb Makes First Detection of Heavy Element From Star Merger – NASA – https://www.nasa.gov/missions/webb/nasas-webb-makes-first-detection-of-heavy-element-from-star-merger/

[13] Astronomers discover heavy elements after bright gamma-ray burst from neutron star merger | Clemson News – https://news.clemson.edu/astronomers-discover-heavy-elements-after-bright-gamma-ray-burst-from-neutron-star-merger/