Ytterbium, element 70 on the periodic table, represents one of the most intriguing chapters in the discovery of the rare earth elements. This soft, silvery-white metal emerged from the complex separation of minerals found near the Swedish village of Ytterby, a location that would ultimately lend its name to four different elements. The journey from its initial identification in 1878 to its modern applications in lasers, atomic clocks, and medical technology demonstrates the evolution of chemical analysis techniques and the expanding role of rare earth elements in advanced technologies. Today, ytterbium stands as a testament to the persistence of early chemists who painstakingly separated nearly identical elements and to modern scientists who have found remarkable applications for this once-obscure metal.

For more information, check out the light rare earth elements (LREEs) as a group, the heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) as a group, and all rare earth elements (REEs). Be sure to check out all other critical raw materials (CRMs), as well. The complete history of all 17 rare earth elements can be found here.

Read about the use of rare earths in quantum computing here.

A History Of Ytterbium

The history of ytterbium spans over 140 years, from its discovery in the late 19th century to its current role in cutting-edge technologies. This chronology traces the element’s journey from a component of mysterious Swedish minerals to its applications in quantum computing, ultra-precise atomic clocks, and high-power fiber lasers, highlighting the key scientific achievements and technological developments that have shaped our understanding and use of this remarkable rare earth element.

Chronology

• 1787 – Swedish army officer Carl Axel Arrhenius discovered an unusual black rock near Ytterby, Sweden, which he named ytterbite (later renamed gadolinite – a complex beryllium iron yttrium silicate and from which chemists discovered Yttrium, Erbium, Terbium, Ytterbium, Holmium, Thulium, and Gadolinium). [1]
• 1794 – Finnish chemist Johan Gadolin analyzed ytterbite and discovered a new oxide he called yttria, which contained ytterbium along with other rare earth elements. [2]
• 1843 – Swedish chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander separated yttria into three components: yttria (yttrium oxide), terbia (terbium oxide), and erbia (erbium oxide), with erbia containing what would later be identified as ytterbium. [3]
• 1878 – Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac at the University of Geneva discovered ytterbium by separating it from erbia, naming the new component “ytterbia” after the village of Ytterby. Marignac heated erbium nitrate until it decomposed and extracted a white powder he identified as a new element’s oxide. [1, 3, 4]
• 1907 – French chemist Georges Urbain at the University of Paris separated Marignac’s ytterbia into two components through fractional crystallization of ytterbium nitrate, which he named neoytterbia (ytterbium) and lutecia (lutetium). Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach independently made the same discovery, calling the elements aldebaranium and cassiopeium. American chemist Charles James also independently isolated these elements around the same time. [1, 3, 5]
• 1929 – W.K. Klemm and W. Schuth first prepared a compound of ytterbium in the +2 oxidation state by reducing ytterbium trichloride (YbCl₃) to ytterbium dichloride (YbCl₂) with hydrogen, demonstrating ytterbium’s unusual ability among lanthanides to form stable divalent compounds. [6]
• 1932 – Mary Elvira Weeks published “The Discovery of the Elements XVI” in the Journal of Chemical Education documenting the history of ytterbium and other rare earth elements discoveries. [8]
• 1937 – Klemm and Bonner produced the first ytterbium metal by heating ytterbium chloride with potassium, though the sample was impure. [3, 4, 7]
• 1940s – Ion exchange and solvent extraction techniques were developed that significantly lowered the cost and difficulty of separating rare earth elements including ytterbium from each other. [8]
• 1940s-1950s – Development of improved separation techniques continued, making ytterbium extraction more commercially viable through advances in ion exchange chromatography. [1]
• 1953 – A relatively pure sample of ytterbium metal was first produced by A. Daane, David Dennison, and Frank Spedding at the Ames Laboratory in Iowa, allowing accurate measurement of the element’s physical and chemical properties. [1, 3, 4]
• 1956 – G.H. Dieke and H.M. Crosswhite published detailed studies on the absorption spectrum and magnetic properties of ytterbium chloride (YbCl₃·6H₂O), advancing understanding of ytterbium’s electronic structure. [30]
• 1960s – Ytterbium began finding applications as a dopant in stainless steel to improve grain refinement and strength. [3]
• 1940s – Ion exchange and solvent extraction techniques were developed that significantly lowered the cost and difficulty of separating rare earth elements including ytterbium from each other. [8]
• 1953 – A relatively pure sample of ytterbium metal was first produced by A. Daane, David Dennison, and Frank Spedding at the Ames Laboratory in Iowa, allowing accurate measurement of the element’s physical and chemical properties. [1, 3, 4]
• 1966 – Uses and safety aspects of ytterbium-169 as a low-energy gamma ray source for portable radiography were documented, demonstrating its application in non-destructive testing of materials. [9]
• 1968 – Ytterbium-169 DTPA (diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid) complex was developed as a new radiopharmaceutical for brain scanning and cisternography. [10]
• 1970s – Research intensified on ytterbium’s magnetic properties and electronic structure, including studies of ytterbium compounds showing Kondo effect and heavy fermion behavior. [31]
• 1974 – X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy studies of pure and oxidized ytterbium were conducted, providing insights into its electronic structure and oxidation states. [32]
• 1978 – Researchers discovered that ytterbium was also a component of xenotime and euxenite minerals, expanding known sources of the element. [3]
• 1980s – Ytterbium-doped materials began to be developed for laser applications, taking advantage of their broad absorption and emission bandwidths. [33]
• 1986 – Studies on the magnetic properties of ytterbium trihydride (YbH₃) revealed paramagnetic behavior following the Curie-Weiss law with an effective magnetic moment of 4.37 μB. [34]
• 1990s – Laser technology developments and optical frequency combs led to increased use of ytterbium in laser applications, particularly in the development of ytterbium-doped fiber lasers. [11]
• 1992 – Calculated physical properties of ytterbium-169 for brachytherapy applications were published, showing its potential as a new radiation source for cancer treatment with advantages over existing isotopes. [12]
• 1993 – The relative biological effectiveness of ytterbium-169 for low dose rate irradiation was established as approximately 20% more effective than cobalt-60 in vitro. [13]
• 1994 – Daimler Benz Aerospace hired IPG Photonics to create a laser-based obstacle warning system using ytterbium-doped fiber laser technology. [14]
• 1996 – IPG Photonics launched industrial-quality, single-mode 10-watt ytterbium-doped fiber lasers. [14]
• 1998 – Radioactivity measurement techniques for ytterbium-169 brachytherapy sources were developed using High Purity Germanium spectrometry. [15]
• 2000 – IPG Photonics introduced a 100-watt diffraction-limited fiber laser using ytterbium-doped multi-fiber side-coupling technology. [14]
• 2001 – Ytterbium-169 was studied as a promising new radionuclide for intravascular brachytherapy with favorable dose distribution characteristics compared to other isotopes. [16]
• 2002-2003 – IPG Photonics developed multi-kilowatt industrial class ytterbium-doped fiber lasers by combining output beams of several 100-watt fiber lasers. [14]
• 2003 – Development of NIST’s first ytterbium optical lattice atomic clock began, which would later set world records for stability. [17]
• 2009 – NIST’s experimental ytterbium atomic clock achieved precision comparable to the NIST-F1 cesium fountain clock, demonstrating ytterbium’s potential for next-generation time standards. [18]
• 2010 – Global production of ytterbium oxide reached approximately 50 tonnes per year, with prices beginning to rise due to increased demand in technology applications. [35]
• 2011 – A novel ytterbium-169 brachytherapy source and delivery system was developed for minimally invasive treatment of early-stage lung cancer. [19]
• 2012 – Ytterbium laser technology advanced significantly with the development of high-power fiber lasers reaching multi-kilowatt outputs for industrial applications. [36]
• 2013 – NIST’s ytterbium atomic clocks set a world record for stability, with tick stability to within less than two parts in 1 quintillion, roughly 10 times better than previous atomic clocks. The clocks used about 10,000 ytterbium atoms cooled to 10 microkelvin and trapped in an optical lattice. [17, 20]
• 2014 – Ytterbium oxide prices reached peak levels due to rare earth supply constraints, affecting industrial applications. [35]
• 2015 – Ytterbium optical lattice clocks were recognized as secondary representations of the SI second by the International Committee for Weights and Measures. [21]
• 2016 – NIST combined two ytterbium atomic clocks to create the world’s most stable single atomic clock using a “zero dead time” design that eliminated measurement gaps. Scientists at NIST also combined two ytterbium atomic clocks to create the most stable clock in the world. [22, 23]
• 2017 – A comprehensive review of ytterbium’s “iterations” of discovery from the 18th century to present was published in Nature Chemistry, documenting the complex history of its separation from other rare earth elements. [24]
• 2018 – Systematic evaluation of ytterbium-171 optical clocks achieved fractional frequency uncertainty of 1×10⁻¹⁸ through synchronous comparison between two lattice systems. Ytterbium optical clocks were used in a global network to search for dark matter coupling. [21, 25]
• 2019 – Studies on ytterbium silicate environmental barrier coatings showed promise for protecting ceramic matrix composites in gas turbine applications. [37]
• 2020 – Development of ytterbium-based quantum computing technologies accelerated, with ytterbium-171 ions showing exceptional stability for qubit applications. [38]
• 2021 – The global ytterbium market showed recovery post-pandemic, with increased demand in fiber optic communications and laser technologies. Smartphone shipments in China grew 15.9% compared to 2020, driving demand for ytterbium in electronics. [39]
• 2022 – ASP Isotopes announced development of a ytterbium-176 enrichment facility using quantum enrichment technology for production of medical isotope lutetium-177. [39]
• 2023 – The global ytterbium market reached new technological milestones with over 70% of the world connected to the internet through mobile devices, driving demand for ytterbium-doped fiber amplifiers. [39]
• 2024 – Kinectrics announced first shipments of highly enriched ytterbium for nuclear applications. Global ytterbium market valued at US$100.002 million with projected CAGR of 10.45% through 2029. [39]

Final Thoughts

The story of ytterbium exemplifies the remarkable transformation of scientific discovery into practical innovation. From its laborious extraction from Swedish minerals in 1878 to its current status as an enabling element for some of humanity’s most precise instruments, ytterbium has proven that even the most obscure elements can become indispensable.

As we look toward a future where quantum technologies, ultra-precise timekeeping, and advanced materials processing become increasingly critical, ytterbium’s unique properties – from its exceptional performance in atomic clocks to its efficiency in high-power lasers – position it as a key element in technological advancement. The continuing refinement of ytterbium applications, particularly in emerging fields like quantum computing and next-generation medical treatments, suggests that this rare earth element’s most significant contributions may still lie ahead.

Thanks for reading!

References

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