Yttrium, element 39 on the periodic table, stands as a testament to the remarkable journey of scientific discovery and technological innovation. From its humble beginnings in a Swedish quarry to its current status as a critical component in cutting-edge technologies, yttrium has woven itself into the fabric of modern civilization. This silvery-metallic transition metal, though classified as a rare earth element, has proven to be anything but rare in its applications. Today, yttrium powers our LED lights, strengthens our alloys, enables medical treatments, and pushes the boundaries of superconductivity. The story of yttrium is not merely a chronicle of chemical discovery but a narrative that encompasses centuries of scientific advancement, international collaboration, and the persistent human drive to understand and harness the natural world. As we trace yttrium’s path from an unknown component in a mysterious black rock to an indispensable element in 21st-century technology, we witness how a single element can transform industries, save lives, and illuminate our understanding of matter itself.

For more information, check out the light rare earth elements (LREEs) as a group, the heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) as a group, and all rare earth elements (REEs). Be sure to check out all other critical raw materials (CRMs), as well. The complete history of all 17 rare earth elements can be found here.

Read about the use of rare earths in quantum computing here.

A History Of Yttrium

The history of yttrium encompasses over two centuries of scientific discovery, technological innovation, and expanding applications across diverse fields. Beginning with its identification in a Swedish mineral in the late 18th century, yttrium has evolved from a scientific curiosity to an essential element in modern technology, medicine, and materials science. From its early use in gas mantles to its current applications in superconductors, medical isotopes, and advanced ceramics, yttrium’s journey reflects the progression of human understanding and technological capability through the industrial, atomic, and information ages.

Chronology

• 1787 – Carl Axel Arrhenius discovered a heavy black rock in a quarry near Ytterby, Sweden, which he initially thought contained tungsten. Yttrium was present in this mineral, later named ytterbite. [1, 6]
• 1789 – Johan Gadolin began analyzing the black mineral specimen sent to him by Arrhenius. Yttrium compounds were present in the sample Gadolin studied. [9]
• 1794 – Johan Gadolin published his analysis revealing a new “earth” (oxide) that constituted 38% of the mineral‘s weight. This was yttrium oxide (yttria), marking the first identification of yttrium compounds. [3, 4, 5]
• 1797 – Anders Gustaf Ekeberg confirmed Gadolin’s identification and officially named the new oxide “yttria” after Ytterby village. Yttrium’s oxide received its formal designation. [6, 10]
• 1828 – Friedrich Wöhler first isolated impure metallic yttrium by reducing yttrium chloride with potassium at high temperature. [6, 12, 13, 14]
• 1843 – Carl Gustaf Mosander discovered that yttria samples contained three distinct oxides: white yttrium oxide, yellow terbium oxide, and rose-colored erbium oxide, establishing yttrium as a distinct element separate from other rare earths. [11, 22, 23, 24]
• 1878 – Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac isolated ytterbium oxide from what was thought to be pure erbia, further clarifying the distinction between yttrium and related rare earth elements. [32, 33, 34]
• 1907 – Georges Urbain separated ytterbia into ytterbium and lutetium, completing the identification of elements originally confused with yttrium. [41]
• 1937 – Klemm and Bonner produced ytterbium metal by heating ytterbium chloride with potassium, advancing rare earth metal production techniques applicable to yttrium. [38, 41]
• 1951 – Bierman and colleagues demonstrated angiographically that liver tumors received their blood supply from the hepatic artery, laying groundwork for future yttrium-90 therapies. [141]
• 1953 – Scientists at Ames Laboratory produced high-purity yttrium metal, enabling detailed study of yttrium’s properties. [38]
• 1954 – Breedis and Young confirmed liver tumor vascularity findings important for later yttrium-90 applications. [141]
• 1960 – Initial development of yttrium-90 radioisotope therapy for treating hepatocellular carcinoma began. [114, 141]
• 1961 – Yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) crystals development began with potential laser applications recognized. [43]
• 1962 – Continued research on YAG crystal growth and properties for optical applications. [43]
• 1963 – Mountain Pass rare earth mine in California began major production, making the US the largest yttrium producer. [132]
• 1964 – Joseph E. Geusic and colleagues at Bell Laboratories demonstrated the first Nd:YAG laser, revolutionizing laser technology using yttrium-based materials. [42, 72, 76]
• 1965 – Commercial production of Nd:YAG lasers began following Bell Labs breakthrough. [72]
• 1966 – Yttrium iron garnet (YIG) microwave filters described in technical literature by P.S. Carter. [67]
• 1967 – Expansion of YAG laser applications in industrial and scientific fields. [72]
• 1968 – Medical Internal Radiation Dose (MIRD) Committee began developing dosimetry models for radiopharmaceuticals including yttrium-90. [115]
• 1969 – Apollo missions returned lunar samples containing yttrium at 54-213 ppm. [6]
• 1970 – Synthetic yttrium aluminum garnets began being sold as simulated diamonds and gemstones. [31, 133]
• 1971 – Continued development of YAG as gemstone simulant in jewelry industry. [31]
• 1972 – Research into yttrium-stabilized zirconia for high-temperature applications expanded. [92]
• 1973 – Industrial applications of YIG filters in telecommunications increased. [62]
• 1974 – Yttrium compounds research for phosphor applications in color television expanded. [133]
• 1975 – Development of improved yttrium extraction techniques from rare earth ores. [132]
• 1976 – Research on yttrium alloys for aerospace applications intensified. [122]
• 1977 – Studies on yttrium oxide ceramics for refractory applications advanced. [102]
• 1978 – Yttrium aluminum garnet laser development for medical applications progressed. [47]
• 1979 – Research into yttrium’s role in high-strength alloys continued. [122]
• 1980 – Development of yttrium-containing permanent magnets advanced. [126]
• 1981 – Studies on yttrium compounds for electronic applications expanded. [108]
• 1982 – Research on yttrium oxide thin films for semiconductor applications began. [110]
• 1983 – Development of glass and resin yttrium-90 microspheres initiated. [141]
• 1984 – Yttrium-stabilized zirconia research for fuel cell applications expanded. [92]
• 1985 – Studies on yttrium phosphors for improved display technologies continued. [86]
• 1986 – Bednorz and Müller discovered superconductivity in lanthanum barium copper oxide at 35K, spurring yttrium research. [53, 134]
• 1987 – Paul Chu’s team at University of Houston and University of Alabama Huntsville discovered YBCO superconductor with critical temperature of 93K. Researchers published practical YBCO synthesis guides. [53, 54, 55, 134]
• 1988 – Wollner and colleagues conducted canine trials of yttrium-90 glass microspheres at University of Michigan. [141]
• 1989 – Development of commercial yttrium-90 microsphere production methods advanced. [141]
• 1990 – Production capacity reached Mountain Pass mine peak for yttrium-containing rare earths. Development of glass and resin yttrium-90 microspheres (SirSpheres and TheraSpheres) for radioembolization therapy continued. [132, 121]
• 1991 – Commercial production of yttrium-90 microspheres for medical applications began. [141]
• 1992 – Yttrium oxide applications in plasma-resistant coatings for semiconductor chambers developed. [104]
• 1993 – China’s rare earth production including yttrium began rapid expansion. [144]
• 1994 – Research on yttrium-doped materials for solid oxide fuel cells intensified. [92]
• 1995 – Yttrium aluminum garnet production for gemstone simulants declined as cubic zirconia gained popularity. [43]
• 1996 – Studies on yttrium compounds for LED phosphors advanced. [107]
• 1997 – Development of yttrium-stabilized zirconia for thermal barrier coatings progressed. [98]
• 1998 – Research on yttrium alloys for medical implants expanded. [98]
• 1999 – China supplied 99% of global yttrium with 41% of world reserves. [144]
• 2000 – Yttrium-stabilized zirconia gained prominence in solid oxide fuel cells operating at 800-1000°C. [92, 93]
• 2001 – Annual world production of yttrium oxide reached 600 tonnes. [143]
• 2002 – Development of yttrium-based materials for aerospace applications continued. [130]
• 2003 – North Korea reportedly used Chinese ZM-87 laser weapon containing yttrium against US helicopters. [42]
• 2004 – Research on yttrium compounds for white LED phosphors intensified. [108]
• 2005 – Studies on yttrium oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications advanced. [110]
• 2006 – Development of yttrium-containing lithium batteries (LYP) for improved performance began. [107]
• 2007 – Urbain’s 1907 separation of lutetium from ytterbium celebrated centennial. [41]
• 2008 – Global financial crisis impacted yttrium market demand and prices. [146]
• 2009 – Research on yttrium applications in renewable energy technologies expanded. [148]
• 2010 – China imposed export restrictions on rare earths including yttrium, causing global supply shortage. Advanced yttrium-90 imaging techniques including PET/CT developed for improved radiotherapy dosimetry. US yttrium consumption data began systematic tracking. [109, 117, 142]
• 2011 – Yttrium oxide price fluctuations began due to Chinese export policies. Electric field assisted mining for yttrium extraction research initiated. [146, 150]
• 2012 – US rare earth production including yttrium compounds restarted after Chinese restrictions. Global yttrium reserves estimated at over 450,000 tonnes. [143, 146]
• 2013 – China produced 7,000 metric tons of yttrium oxide, representing 99% of global production. Research on yttrium nanoparticles for fuel cells advanced at Chalmers University. [145, 151]
• 2014 – Annual world yttrium oxide production increased to 6,400 tonnes. Department of Energy identified yttrium as critical material. [143, 144]
• 2015 – Oregon State University developed YinMn Blue pigment containing yttrium. Studies on yttrium extraction via electric field mining using EVOP technique published. [31, 150]
• 2016 – Scientists at NIST combined yttrium-based atomic clocks to create world’s most stable clock. China identified yttrium as critical element in national policy. [38, 144]
• 2017 – Research on yttrium applications in quantum computing and advanced medical imaging expanded. Development of yttrium-based materials for 3D printing advanced. [102]
• 2018 – Yttrium market reached pre-pandemic growth levels with expanding semiconductor applications. Studies on biomedical yttrium alloys for implants published. [154, 161]
• 2019 – Global yttrium market analysis showed increasing demand from electronics and aerospace sectors. Research on yttrium oxide for next-generation semiconductors intensified. [150, 154]
• 2020 – COVID-19 pandemic negatively impacted yttrium market. Yttrium oxide price was 2.94 USD per kilogram. Research continued on yttrium applications in LEDs and medical devices. [146, 154]
• 2021 – Yttrium market began recovery from pandemic impacts. Studies on yttrium compounds for electric vehicle batteries advanced. [154, 156]
• 2022 – US yttrium consumption reached 1,000 metric tons yttrium oxide equivalent. India announced $10 billion PLI scheme including yttrium applications. China exported 3,400 tons of yttrium compounds. [148, 152, 156]
• 2023 – US yttrium consumption dropped to 200 metric tons oxide equivalent. China’s yttrium exports were 2,900 tons. US yttrium metal price reached 7,974 USD/MT. [152, 153, 156]
• 2024 – Namibia Critical Metals announced laboratory assays for heavy rare earth project including yttrium. Global yttrium market valued at $114.9 million with 4.6% CAGR projection. Yttrium continues applications in quantum computing research. [156, 159]

Final Thoughts

The journey of yttrium from an unidentified component in a Swedish rock to a cornerstone of modern technology illustrates the profound impact that fundamental scientific research can have on human progress. What began as Johan Gadolin’s careful chemical analysis in 1794 has blossomed into applications that touch nearly every aspect of contemporary life. From the smartphone screens we use daily to the life-saving cancer treatments in our hospitals, from the energy-efficient LED lights in our homes to the superconductors pushing the boundaries of physics, yttrium has proven itself indispensable.

Perhaps most remarkably, yttrium’s story is far from complete. As researchers continue to explore its properties in quantum computing, advanced medical imaging, and next-generation energy systems, we can only imagine what new chapters will be written in the coming decades. The history of yttrium reminds us that today’s scientific curiosity becomes tomorrow’s transformative technology, and that even the most obscure elements can harbor secrets that reshape our world.

Thanks for reading!

References

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[3] Finnish chemist Johan Gadolin (1760–1852) discovery of yttrium – https://www.chstm.org/events/finding-yttrium-johan-gadolin-and-development-discovery

[4] Johan Gadolin’s 1794 discovery of yttria – https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc111224/m1/1/

[5] Yttrium discovery by Johan Gadolin in 1794 – https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johan-Gadolin

[6] Discovery timeline and Friedrich Wohler’s 1828 isolation – https://www.chemistrylearner.com/yttrium.html

[7] Yttrium discovery and rare earth separation – https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/historians-miscellaneous-biographies/johan-gadolin

[8] Gadolin’s isolation of yttria Y2O3 – https://www.abo.fi/en/johan-gadolin/

[9] Johan Gadolin’s 1789 discovery – https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele039.html

[10] Carl Axel Arrhenius 1787 discovery and naming – https://periodic-table.com/yttrium/

[11] Discovery history and timeline – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium

[12] Friedrich Wöhler biography and achievements – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler

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[22] Mosander’s rare earth discoveries – https://kids.kiddle.co/Carl_Gustaf_Mosander

[23] Mosander’s 1843 yttrium oxide separation – https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/historians-miscellaneous-biographies/carl-gustaf-mosander

[24] Mosander’s work on yttria – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_Mosander

[25] Mosander biography – https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Gustaf-Mosander

[26] Mosander’s element discoveries – https://periodictableofelements.fandom.com/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_Mosander

[27] Yttrium purification history – https://www.chemistryexplained.com/Va-Z/Yttrium.html

[28] Erbium discovery context – https://www.chemicool.com/elements/erbium.html

[29] Yttrium discovery timeline – http://www.sputtering-targets.net/blog/who-discovered-yttrium-metal-history/

[30] Mosander’s contributions – https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100211520

[31] Yttrium oxide identification – https://www.livescience.com/34564-yttrium.html

[32] Marignac’s 1878 ytterbium discovery – https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Charles-Galissard-de-Marignac

[33] Marignac’s rare earth work – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Charles_Galissard_de_Marignac

[34] Marignac’s discoveries – https://prabook.com/web/jean.de_marignac/3758164

[35] Marignac’s ytterbium isolation – https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100134222

[36] Marignac’s scientific work – https://www.redalyc.org/journal/1816/181676102010/html/

[37] Marignac element discoveries – https://periodictableofelements.fandom.com/wiki/Jean_Charles_Galissard_de_Marignac

[38] Ytterbium discovery and history – https://www.chemistrylearner.com/ytterbium.html

[39] Ytterbium oxide discovery – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ytterbium(III)_oxide

[40] Marignac’s contributions to rare earths – https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/marignac-jean-charles-galissard-de

[41] Ytterbium properties and discovery – https://www.chemicool.com/elements/ytterbium.html

[42] Nd:YAG laser development – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nd:YAG_laser

[43] YAG crystal development – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium_aluminium_garnet

[44] YAG laser technology – https://www.rp-photonics.com/yag_lasers.html

[45] Er:YAG laser applications – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Er:YAG_laser

[46] YAG optical properties – https://www.crystran.com/optical-materials/yttrium-aluminium-garnet-yag

[47] Nd:YAG in ophthalmology – https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38954050/

[48] YAG material properties – https://www.samaterials.com/content/yttrium-aluminum-garnet-yag-key-material-for-lasers-and-fluorescent-applications.html

[49] Nd:YAG wavelength history – https://www.satorilaser.com/blogs/laser-at-satori/black-history-month-nd-yag-wavelenght

[50] YAG laser types – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yag_laser

[51] YAG applications overview – https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/yttrium-aluminum-garnet

[52] YBCO discovery at Houston – https://ethw.org/First-Hand:Discovery_of_Superconductivity_at_93_K_in_YBCO:_The_View_from_Ground_Zero

[53] YBCO properties and history – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium_barium_copper_oxide

[54] 1987 YBCO discovery – https://ceramics.org/ceramic-tech-today/characterization-1/historic-january-1987-ybco-superconductors-discovered-and-super-bowl-xxi/

[55] YBCO applications – https://angpacmin.com/yttrium-barium-copper-oxide-the-superconductor-powering-the-future/

[56] YBCO structure – https://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/rzepa/mim/century/html/ybco.htm

[57] High temperature superconductors – https://quantumlevitation.com/the-rise-of-high-temperatures-superconductors/

[58] YBCO chemistry – https://www.chemistryworld.com/podcasts/ybco-yttrium-barium-copper-oxide/6148.article

[59] YBCO in ceramics – https://www.britannica.com/science/yttrium-barium-copper-oxide

[60] YBCO microwave properties – http://www.fortunejournals.com/articles/review-on-microwave-surface-resistance-of-high-temperature-superconductor-yttrium-barium-copper-oxide-ybco.html

[61] YBCO history and development – https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Yttrium_barium_copper_oxide

[62] YIG microwave applications – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YIG_sphere

[63] YIG filter technology – https://www.microwavejournal.com/articles/37980-reinventing-yig-technology-for-microwave-filter-applications

[64] YIG technology overview – https://www.microwaves101.com/encyclopedias/yig-technology

[65] YIG properties and applications – https://www.microlambdawireless.com/updates/what-is-yig-and-why-does-it-work-so-well/

[66] YIG manufacturing – https://matesy.de/en/technologies/yig

[67] YIG band-reject filters – https://www.mpdigest.com/2023/02/21/a-new-approach-to-yig-based-band-reject-filters/

[68] Yttrium iron garnet properties – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium_iron_garnet

[69] YIG materials and applications – https://heegermaterials.com/magneto-optic-crystals/2769-yttrium-iron-garnet-yig.html

[70] YIG in signal analyzers – https://docs.keysight.com/kkbopen/yig-spheres-the-gems-in-your-signal-analyzer-604584429.html

[71] YIG thin films research – https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/13/2/1218

[72] Nd:YAG laser history – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nd:YAG_laser

[73] YAG laser development – https://www.rp-photonics.com/yag_lasers.html

[74] Nd:YAG technology guide – https://www.laser-crylink.com/understanding-nd-yag-laser/

[75] YAG crystal properties – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium_aluminium_garnet

[76] Bell Labs Nd:YAG development – https://www.scientificmaterials.com/products/nd-yag_yttrium_aluminum_garnet.php

[77] Nd:YAG laser review – https://www.ijraset.com/research-paper/a-review-on-the-neodymium-doped-yttrium-aluminum-garnet-laser

[78] YAG in solar pumped lasers – https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/yttrium-aluminum-garnet

[79] Nd:YAG crystal properties – https://www.attelements.com/laser-crystals/nd:yag-,neodimium-doped-yttrium-aluminum-garnet,-nd:yag-crystal.html

[80] Nd:YAG applications – https://www.samaterials.com/laser-crystal/478-ndyag.html

[81] Nd:YAG specifications – https://www.msesupplies.com/products/nd-yag-nd-doped-yttrium-aluminium-garnet-laser-crystal

[82] CRT phosphor technology – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube

[83] Phosphor display technology – https://www.lenovo.com/us/en/glossary/phosphor/

[84] Phosphor display technology CA – https://www.lenovo.com/ca/en/glossary/phosphor/

[85] Phosphor applications – https://www.phosphor-technology.com/phosphors/

[86] Phosphor materials – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphor

[87] Rare earth recovery from CRTs – https://solvomet.eu/2018/12/01/recovering-rare-earths-from-old-tvs-and-computer-screens/

[88] Display technology comparison – https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_CRT,_LCD,_plasma,_and_OLED_displays

[89] Phosphor layer technology – https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/phosphor-layer

[90] Phosphor screen in CRT – https://szphoton.com/blogs/articles/why-phosphor-screen-is-used-in-crt

[91] Phosphor in CRT discussion – https://goldrefiningforum.com/threads/phosphor-in-crts.22223/

[92] YSZ properties and applications – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttria-stabilized_zirconia

[93] YSZ fuel cell applications – https://www.fuelcellstore.com/yttria-stabilized-zirconia-8-y-standard-grade-powder

[94] YSZ fine grade powder – https://www.fuelcellstore.com/yttria-stabilized-zirconia-8-mole-fine-grade-powder

[95] YSZ mid grade powder – https://www.fuelcellstore.com/yttria-stabilized-zirconia-8-y-mid-grade-powder

[96] YSZ nanoparticles – https://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=3374

[97] YSZ overview – https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/yttria-stabilised-zirconia

[98] YSZ properties and sustainability – https://modern-physics.org/yttria-stabilized-zirconia/

[99] YSZ industrial applications – https://www.preciseceramic.com/products/yttria-stabilized-zirconia.html

[100] YSZ electrolyte powder – https://fuelcellmaterials.com/products/powders/electrolyte-powders/electrolyte-yttria-stabilized/yttria-stabilized-zirconia-8-mole-fine-grade-powder/

[101] YSZ formula and properties – https://material-properties.org/yttria-stabilized-zirconia/

[102] Yttrium oxide applications – https://www.samaterials.com/content/what-is-yttrium-oxide-used-for.html

[103] Yttrium properties overview – https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1638

[104] Yttrium oxide in semiconductors – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0257897222011033

[105] High purity yttrium oxide market – https://www.marketresearchforecast.com/reports/high-purity-densified-yttrium-oxide-61885

[106] Yttria ceramic properties – https://www.coorstek.com/en/materials/yttria/

[107] Yttrium applications and properties – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium

[108] Yttrium oxide in lighting – https://www.samaterials.com/harnessing-yttrium-oxide-for-advanced-lighting-solutions.html

[109] Rare earth elements in semiconductors – https://www.onlinescientificresearch.com/articles/rare-earth-elements-for-semiconductor-manufacturing-global-supply-chain-and-dominance.html

[110] Yttrium oxide overview – https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/yttrium-oxide

[111] Yttrium properties and uses – https://www.sputtertargets.net/blog/uses-properties-facts-about-rare-earth-yttrium.html

[112] Yttrium-90 properties – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium-90

[113] Yttrium in medical imaging – https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2020/cs/c9cs00840c

[114] Yttrium-90 medical applications – https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/yttrium-90

[115] Y-90 radioembolization dosimetry – https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7732571/

[116] Y-90 hepatic radioembolization – https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5258157/

[117] Theranostic imaging of Y-90 – https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4464848/

[118] Y-90 production methods – https://www.advancingnuclearmedicine.com/products/yttrium-90

[119] Y-90 in healthcare – https://beatcancer.eu/yttrium-90-y-90/

[120] Y-90 internal radiation therapy – https://hillman.upmc.com/cancer-care/surgical-oncology/koch-regional-cancer-therapy-center/treatments/yttrium-90

[121] History of Y-90 radioembolization – https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6352151/

[122] Magnesium-yttrium alloys – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_alloy

[123] Yttrium strengthening mechanism – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921509322009005

[124] Magnesium-yttrium alloy properties – https://www.americanelements.com/magnesium-yttrium-alloy

[125] Yttrium-aluminum alloy – https://www.americanelements.com/yttrium-aluminum-alloy

[126] Yttrium effects on Mg alloys – https://indjst.org/articles/importance-and-effects-of-yttrium-on-magnesium-based-alloys-a-comprehensive-review

[127] Magnesium alloy guide – https://www.inoxcast.com/magnesium-alloy/

[128] Y-Al alloy products – https://www.samaterials.com/yttrium/1091-yttrium-aluminum-alloy.html

[129] Magnesium processing – https://www.britannica.com/technology/magnesium-processing/The-metal-and-its-alloys

[130] Magnesium alloy developments – https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/materials/articles/10.3389/fmats.2020.00198/full

[131] Yttrium in aluminum alloys – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1002072123002661

[132] Yttrium production history – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium

[133] Yttrium uses in 1970s – https://www.livescience.com/34564-yttrium.html

[134] Yttrium from Ytterby – https://www.nature.com/articles/nchem.2442

[135] Yttrium element facts – https://www.chemicool.com/elements/yttrium.html

[136] Yttrium properties – https://www.britannica.com/science/yttrium

[137] Yttrium history overview – https://periodic-table.com/yttrium/

[138] Yttrium discovery and applications – https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1638

[139] Yttrium PubChem – https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/element/Yttrium

[140] Yttrium discovery facts – https://www.chemistrylearner.com/yttrium.html

[141] Development of Y-90 microspheres – https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5514171/

[142] US yttrium consumption statistics – https://www.statista.com/statistics/802829/us-yttrium-consumption/

[143] Yttrium production data – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium

[144] China’s yttrium surplus – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301420722000733

[145] Yttrium production by country – https://www.statista.com/statistics/277643/yttrium-production-worldwide-by-country/

[146] Yttrium oxide price data – https://www.statista.com/statistics/450176/global-reo-yttrium-oxide-price-forecast/

[147] Yttrium price index – https://businessanalytiq.com/procurementanalytics/index/yttrium-price-index/

[148] Global yttrium market analysis – https://www.knowledge-sourcing.com/report/global-yttrium-market

[149] Yttrium research overview – https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/earth-and-atmospheric-sciences/yttrium-y

[150] Yttrium extraction research – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652619311552

[151] Yttrium research updates – https://www.livescience.com/34564-yttrium.html

[152] US yttrium consumption 2023 – https://www.statista.com/statistics/802829/us-yttrium-consumption/

[153] Yttrium prices 2023 – https://www.supermarketresearch.com/2025/03/10/yttrium-prices-chart/

[154] Yttrium market report – https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/yttrium-market

[155] USGS yttrium data – https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-yttrium.pdf

[156] Global yttrium market forecast – https://www.knowledge-sourcing.com/report/global-yttrium-market

[157] Yttrium Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium

[158] Yttrium historical information – https://webelements.com/yttrium/history.html

[159] Yttrium market projections – https://www.factmr.com/report/1466/yttrium-market

[160] Yttrium mining market – https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/yttrium-mining-market-109436

[161] Yttrium facts and applications – https://www.livescience.com/34564-yttrium.html