Gadolinium, a silvery-white rare earth metal with remarkable magnetic properties, has played a pivotal role in advancing both scientific understanding and practical applications in fields ranging from magnetic resonance imaging to cutting-edge refrigeration technology. Named after the Finnish chemist Johan Gadolin, this element’s journey from its discovery in 1880 to its current status as an essential material in medical diagnostics and emerging green technologies represents a fascinating chapter in the history of chemistry and materials science. The unique combination of gadolinium’s exceptional paramagnetic properties at room temperature and its ferromagnetic behavior below 20°C has made it indispensable in modern technology, while ongoing research continues to unveil new applications that promise to revolutionize energy-efficient cooling systems and advanced medical imaging techniques.

For more information, check out the light rare earth elements (LREEs) as a group, the heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) as a group, and all rare earth elements (REEs). Be sure to check out all other critical raw materials (CRMs), as well. The complete history of all 17 rare earth elements can be found here.

Read about the use of rare earths in quantum computing here.

A History Of Gadolinium

The history of gadolinium spans over 140 years, beginning with its spectroscopic discovery in 1880 and continuing through groundbreaking applications in magnetic refrigeration and medical imaging. From the initial isolation of gadolinium oxide to the development of gadolinium-based contrast agents that have been administered in over 450 million doses worldwide, this element has evolved from a scientific curiosity to an essential component in modern technology, with its giant magnetocaloric effect discovered in 1997 opening new frontiers in environmentally friendly cooling systems.

Chronology

• 1794 – Johan Gadolin analyzed a black mineral from Ytterby, Sweden, discovering yttria, which would later be found to contain gadolinium and other rare earth elements [1]
• 1802 – Martin Klaproth named the mineral gadolinite (a complex beryllium iron yttrium silicate – from which chemists discovered Yttrium, Erbium, Terbium, Ytterbium, Holmium, Thulium, and Gadolinium) after Johan Gadolin [1]
• 1880 – Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac observed spectroscopic lines from gadolinium in samples of gadolinite and cerite (Cerium, Lanthanum, and Didymium; Didymium was later separated into neodymium and praseodymium), discovering the element gadolinium [1, 2, 3]
• 1886 – Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran isolated gadolinium oxide from cerite and named the element “gadolinium” after Johan Gadolin [1, 2, 3]
• 1926-1927 – Peter Debye and William Giauque independently proposed the theoretical basis for magnetic cooling using the magnetocaloric effect, which would later be demonstrated with gadolinium compounds [4, 5]
• 1933 – William F. Giauque and D.P. MacDougall achieved temperatures of 0.25 K using gadolinium sulfate (Gd₂(SO₄)₃·8H₂O) through adiabatic demagnetization, demonstrating the first practical application of gadolinium in magnetic refrigeration [4, 5, 6]
• 1935 – Félix Trombe isolated pure metallic gadolinium for the first time and discovered its ferromagnetic properties below room temperature [1, 2, 7]
• 1949 – William Giauque received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, partly for his work on adiabatic demagnetization using gadolinium compounds [8]
• 1973-1975 – Researchers studied the magnetothermodynamics of gadolinium gallium garnet, establishing it as a benchmark material for magnetic refrigeration [4]
• 1976 – Gerald V. Brown at NASA demonstrated the first room-temperature magnetic refrigerator using gadolinium metal, achieving a temperature span of nearly 80°C with a 7 Tesla magnetic field [5, 9, 10]
• 1988 – The FDA approved Magnevist (gadopentetate dimeglumine), the first gadolinium-based contrast agent for MRI, marking gadolinium’s entry into medical diagnostics [11, 12]
• 1988-2017 – Over 450 million doses of gadolinium-based contrast agents were administered worldwide for MRI procedures [11, 13]
• 1994 – Three gadolinium-based MRI contrast agents had been approved for clinical use in the United States [14]
• 1995-2017 – Six additional gadolinium-based MRI contrast agents were approved by the FDA for clinical use [14]
• 1997 (February 20) – Karl A. Gschneidner Jr. unveiled a proof-of-concept magnetic refrigerator operating near room temperature at Iowa State University’s Ames Laboratory [5, 15]
• 1997 (June 9) – Gschneidner and Vitalij Pecharsky announced the discovery of the giant magnetocaloric effect in Gd₅Si₂Ge₂, showing magnetocaloric properties about 50% larger than pure gadolinium [5, 8, 15, 16]
• 1997 – The Astronautics Corporation of America demonstrated a 600-watt magnetic refrigerator using gadolinium, achieving efficiency comparable to conventional refrigerators [9, 10]
• 2002 – Researchers at the University of Amsterdam demonstrated the giant magnetocaloric effect in MnFe(P,As) alloys, advancing magnetic refrigeration technology beyond gadolinium [5, 15]
• 2005 – Camfridge was founded as a magnetic cooling company, developing alternatives to expensive gadolinium-based solutions [9]
• 2006 – The first cases of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) were linked to gadolinium-based contrast agents in patients with severe kidney disease [17]
• 2009 – The World Health Organization issued restrictions on the use of high-risk gadolinium contrast agents in patients with severe kidney problems [11]
• 2013 – Dotarem (gadoterate meglumine), a macrocyclic gadolinium contrast agent, entered the market with improved safety profiles [12]
• 2014 – Researchers discovered giant anisotropic magnetocaloric effect in materials, offering new possibilities for gadolinium-based cooling systems [8]
• 2015 – The GeoThermag system was developed, combining gadolinium-based magnetic refrigeration with geothermal energy [5, 8, 15]
• 2017 – The FDA required new class warnings for all gadolinium-based contrast agents regarding gadolinium retention in the body and brain [11, 12, 18]
• 2018 – The manufacturer of Optimark discontinued this gadolinium-based contrast agent [12]
• 2024 – MAGNOTHERM showcased commercial magnetic refrigeration products using gadolinium at Chillventa trade fair [9]

Final Thoughts

The story of gadolinium exemplifies how a single element can transform multiple fields of science and technology over the course of a century and a half. From its spectroscopic discovery in 1880 to its current applications in life-saving medical imaging and environmentally sustainable refrigeration, gadolinium has consistently demonstrated its unique value.

As we face global challenges in healthcare and climate change, gadolinium’s role becomes even more critical. The ongoing development of safer gadolinium-based contrast agents addresses medical safety concerns, while advances in magnetocaloric refrigeration promise to reduce global energy consumption by 20-30% compared to conventional cooling methods. The future of gadolinium research lies not only in optimizing existing applications, but also in discovering new ways to harness this rare earth‘s exceptional magnetic properties, ensuring that this remarkable element continues to contribute to human progress and environmental sustainability for generations to come.

Thanks for reading!

References

[1] Gadolinium – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadolinium

[2] Gadolinium | History, Uses, Facts, Physical & Chemical Characteristics – https://periodic-table.com/gadolinium/

[3] WebElements Periodic Table » Gadolinium » historical information – https://www.webelements.com/gadolinium/history.html

[4] Ultralow-field magnetocaloric materials for compact magnetic refrigeration | NPG Asia Materials – https://www.nature.com/articles/s41427-023-00488-7

[5] Magnetocaloric effect – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetocaloric_effect

[6] Magnetocaloric Effect – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics – https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/magnetocaloric-effect

[7] Gadolinium is a rare earth metal that was discovered … – https://engineering.purdue.edu/REE/rare-earth-elements/gadolinium

[8] Magnetocaloric effect – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_refrigeration

[9] Magnetic Cooling – https://refindustry.com/articles/articles/magnetic-cooling/

[10] Thirty years of near room temperature magnetic cooling: Where we are today and future prospects – ScienceDirect – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0140700708000236

[11] MRI contrast agent – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRI_contrast_agent

[12] Gadolinium | What Is Gadolinium & What Is It Used for in MRIs? – https://www.drugwatch.com/gadolinium/

[13] Gadolinium contrast agents | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org – https://radiopaedia.org/articles/gadolinium-contrast-agents

[14] Gadolinium Magnetic Resonance Imaging – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482487/

[15] Magnetic refrigeration – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_demagnetization

[16] Advanced Materials for Magnetic Cooling – https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/solid-state-synthesis/advanced-materials

[17] Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agent Use, Their Safety, and Practice Evolution – PMC – https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8378745/

[18] New warnings for gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) for MRI – https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-drug-safety-communication-fda-warns-gadolinium-based-contrast-agents-gbcas-are-retained-body