Cerium, a silvery-white metal that readily oxidizes in air, holds the distinction of being the first lanthanide element discovered by humanity. This soft, ductile metal has played a remarkable role in scientific advancement and industrial innovation since its discovery in 1803. From its early use in medical treatments to its critical applications in gas mantles that illuminated European streets, and its modern roles in catalytic converters and specialized glass, cerium has proven to be far more than just another rare earth element. Despite its classification as a “rare earth,” cerium is actually the 25th most abundant element in Earth’s crust, comparable to copper in abundance. Its unique chemical properties, particularly its ability to exist in both +3 and +4 oxidation states, have made it invaluable for applications ranging from lighter flints to advanced materials used in nuclear technology.

For more information, check out the light rare earth elements (LREEs) as a group, the heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) as a group, and all rare earth elements (REEs). Be sure to check out all other critical raw materials (CRMs), as well. The complete history of all 17 rare earth elements can be found here.

Read about the use of rare earths in quantum computing here.

A History Of Cerium

The history of cerium spans over two centuries, beginning with its discovery during the dawn of modern chemistry and continuing through its vital contributions to lighting technology, the Manhattan Project, and contemporary environmental applications. This chronology traces the element’s journey from a mineralogical curiosity to an essential component of modern technology.

Chronology

• 1751 – Axel Cronstedt discovered a reddish-brown mineral at the Bastnäs Mine near Riddarhyttan, Sweden, which he called “Tungsten of Bastnäs,” later known as cerite, though he did not realize it contained cerium. [1]
• 1782 – Carl Wilhelm Scheele received cerite samples from Wilhelm Hisinger for analysis but failed to recognize that it contained cerium. [1]
• 1801 – The asteroid Ceres was discovered by Giuseppe Piazzi, providing the future namesake for cerium. [1]
• 1803 – Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger discovered cerium in cerite at Bastnäs, Sweden, and Martin Heinrich Klaproth independently discovered cerium in Germany the same year. They named the new element cerium after the asteroid Ceres. [1, 2, 3]
• 1804 – Louis Nicolas Vauquelin confirmed the discovery of cerium and studied cerite extensively. [4]
• 1825 – Carl Gustaf Mosander prepared metallic cerium by reacting cerium sulfide with chlorine to yield anhydrous cerium chloride, then reducing the chloride with potassium. [1, 5]
• 1839 – Carl Gustaf Mosander discovered that cerium oxide contained lanthanum, proving that what was thought to be pure ceria actually contained other rare earth elements. [5, 6, 7]
• 1840 – Carl Gustaf Mosander separated cerium oxide into yellow cerium oxide, white lanthanum oxide, and a pinkish component he called “didymium” (later separated into praseodymium and neodymium) [5]
• 1854 – James Simpson of the University of Edinburgh reported that cerium nitrate suppressed vomiting, especially morning sickness. [18]
• 1875 – William Francis Hillebrand and Thomas Norton became the first to isolate pure metallic cerium by passing an electric current through molten cerium chloride. [1, 2, 8, 9, 10]
• 1885 – Carl Auer von Welsbach invented the gas mantle using a mixture of 60% magnesium oxide, 20% lanthanum oxide and 20% yttrium oxide, which he called Actinophor, patenting it the same year, though these early mantles produced green-tinted light. Carl Auer von Welsbach also discovered and isolated neodymium and praseodymium from didymium. [11, 12, 13]
• 1887 – Carl Auer von Welsbach’s first company established a factory in Atzgersdorf to produce gas mantles using cerium. [13]
• 1889 – Carl Auer von Welsbach’s first gas mantle company failed due to the poor quality of the green-tinted light produced by cerium-containing mantles. [11, 13]
• 1890 – Carl Auer von Welsbach discovered that thorium dioxide was superior to magnesium oxide for gas mantles containing cerium. [13]
• 1891 – Carl Auer von Welsbach perfected a new gas mantle mixture of 99% thorium dioxide and 1% cerium dioxide that produced much whiter light. He unveiled his improved cerium-containing lamp outside the Opera Café in Vienna on a dark November night. [11, 12, 13, 14]
• 1892 – Carl Auer von Welsbach introduced his improved cerium-containing gas mantles commercially, and they quickly spread throughout Europe. [13]
• 1898 – Carl Auer von Welsbach began producing his Auer-Oslight using cerium-containing metal-filament mantles with osmium wiring in a new factory. [11]
• 1902 – Carl Auer von Welsbach’s cerium-containing metal-filament light bulb hit the market. [11]
• 1903 – Carl Auer von Welsbach won a patent for ferrocerium, a fire striker composition containing cerium and iron. [11]
• 1907 – Carl Auer von Welsbach formed Treibacher Chemische Werke GesmbH to build and market ferrocerium lighters containing cerium. [11]
• 1913 – Carl Auer von Welsbach’s companies had sold 300 million gas lamps containing cerium dioxide. [14]
• 1920 – Large-scale production of cerium-containing mischmetal began, with cerium comprising approximately 50% of the alloy used primarily for lighter flints and steel additives. [37]
• 1935 – Cerium-containing gas mantles remained ubiquitous in gas lighting until being gradually replaced by electric lighting. Cerium continued to be used in ferrocerium for lighters. [38]
• 1943 – Primo Levi’s life was saved at Auschwitz concentration camp when he found ferrocerium (containing cerium) and bartered it for food. Cerium mischmetal production expanded for military applications. [39]
• 1942 – Julian Webb at Kodak discovered cerium-141 contamination in strawboard packaging. [16]
• 1944 – Production of extremely pure cerium commenced at Ames Laboratory in mid-1944 as part of the Manhattan Project, where cerium compounds were investigated as materials for crucibles for uranium and plutonium casting. [2, 15]
• 1945 – Cerium production at Ames Laboratory continued until August. The Ames Laboratory produced 437 pounds (198 kg) of extremely pure cerium for cerium sulfide crucibles. Julian Webb concluded that radioactive cerium-141 found in Kodak’s strawboard came from the Trinity atomic bomb detonation on July 16. [16, 17]
• 1949 – Julian Webb published his report clearly stating that wind-borne radioactive cerium-141 from the atom bomb detonation had contaminated materials across the United States. [16]
• 1950 – Cerium began to be used as a catalyst in petroleum refining. [1]
• 1960 – Bastnäsite replaced monazite as the primary commercial source of cerium due to monazite’s radioactive thorium content. Mountain Pass mine in California became major cerium source. [20]
• 1965 – Mountain Pass rare earth mine emerged as the world’s major source of cerium and other lanthanides, processing bastnäsite ore containing 49% cerium. [20]
• 1975 – Cerium dioxide applications expanded in glass manufacturing as a decolorizer and in optical glass for high refractive index lenses. [40]
• 1980 – Cerium compounds began widespread use in automotive catalytic converters to reduce emissions. Cerium oxide emerged as superior glass polishing agent. [41]
• 1990 – Cerium-doped phosphors developed for color television screens. Cerium sulfide replaced toxic cadmium compounds as red pigment. [42]
• 1995 – A weak solution of cerium nitrate was found to be an effective first treatment for extensive burn wounds as part of Flammacerium cream. [1, 18]
• 2010 – Environmental impact studies showed cerium oxide nanoparticles affected nitrogen fixation in plant root nodules when exposed to high cerium concentrations. [19]
• 2011 – Zhang et al. demonstrated uptake and distribution of cerium oxide nanoparticles in cucumber plants, showing their ability to cross biological barriers. [19]
• 2012 – Priester et al. examined dose-response relationships of cerium oxide nanoparticles on soybean growth, finding complex effects at different concentrations. [19]
• 2013 – Keller and Lazareva predicted that 60-86% of engineered cerium oxide nanoparticles would end up in landfills and soils, with limited pathway through wastewater treatment plants. A study showed cerium oxide nanoparticles could be loaded in hydrogels as antioxidative agents. [20, 21]
• 2014 – Studies demonstrated cerium oxide nanoparticles’ antibacterial properties and surface chemistry effects on toxicity against pathogenic bacteria. Dahle and Arai published research on pH and phosphate effects on cerium oxide nanoparticle dissolution. [21, 22]
• 2015 – Environmental Geochemistry of Cerium review published, documenting applications and toxicology of cerium oxide nanoparticles. Studies showed cerium oxide nanoparticles as catalytic antioxidants with biomedical applications. [20, 23]
• 2016 – Maqbool et al. reported cerium oxide nanoparticles as carriers for gene delivery, showing 3.5-fold higher fluorescence intensity than naked DNA treatment. Low concentrations of cerium oxide nanoparticles demonstrated effects on in vitro fertilization in mice. [24, 25]
• 2017 – Comprehensive studies on cerium oxide nanoparticles showed their use as “radical” approach to neurodegenerative disease treatment. Yang et al. published particle-specific toxicity studies of cerium oxide nanoparticles to plants. [25, 26]
• 2018 – Eriksson et al. developed cerium oxide nanoparticles with antioxidant capabilities and gadolinium integration for MRI contrast enhancement. Multiple studies confirmed cerium oxide nanoparticles’ antibacterial and biomedical applications. [26, 27]
• 2019 – Carvajal et al. showed cerium oxide nanoparticles reverted H2O2-mediated effects on cellular proliferation and stress response pathways. Synthesis methods for cerium oxide nanoparticles were optimized for biomedical applications. [27, 28]
• 2020 – Comprehensive reviews published on cerium oxide nanoparticles’ tissue engineering applications and synthesis methods. Studies showed cerium oxide nanoparticles’ potential in wound healing applications. [28, 29]
• 2021 – Studies demonstrated cerium oxide nanoparticles’ impact on plant-soil continuum and agricultural applications. Research expanded on cerium oxide’s role in environmental remediation. [30]
• 2022 – Market analysis predicted significant growth in cerium oxide nanoparticles market due to automotive and healthcare applications. Research focused on cerium oxide nanoparticles’ ecotoxicity in aquatic environments. [31]
• 2023 – Scientists at Trinity College Dublin synthesized cerianite using environmentally friendly methods for biomedical research. Global cerium oxide nanoparticles market valued at USD 763.8 million with projected growth. [32, 33]
• 2024 – Comprehensive review “Two decades of ceria nanoparticle research” published documenting structure, properties and emerging applications. Cerium oxide nanoparticles market projected to reach USD 1.76 billion. Studies confirmed cerium oxide nanoparticles’ role in wound care mechanisms. [34, 35, 36]

Final Thoughts

The story of cerium exemplifies how a single element can transform from a mineralogical curiosity into an indispensable component of modern civilization. From its discovery in a Swedish mine to its role in illuminating cities across Europe, and from its contributions to the atomic age to its current applications in environmental protection, cerium has consistently proven its worth far beyond its initial classification as a “rare earth” element.

Today, as we face challenges of energy efficiency and environmental sustainability, cerium continues to find new applications in catalytic converters, LED lighting, and clean energy technologies. Its unique chemical properties, particularly its ability to store and release oxygen atoms, make it increasingly valuable in our efforts to reduce pollution and improve industrial processes.

The history of cerium reminds us that scientific discoveries often have impacts far beyond their original context, and that elements once considered merely academic curiosities can become cornerstones of technological progress.

Thanks for reading!

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