The history of zinc represents a unique narrative in metallurgy – where the metal’s usefulness preceded its identification by thousands of years.

Unlike iron or copper, which could be smelted directly from their ores using ancient techniques, zinc’s low boiling point of 907°C meant it vaporized before it could be collected as a liquid metal – making its isolation a significant technological challenge. This technical difficulty resulted in zinc being used primarily in its alloyed form as brass for millennia before metallurgists in India achieved the breakthrough of producing pure metallic zinc through sophisticated distillation techniques in the 12th century.

Zinc, the metal that in the past defied extraction, now protects the world’s infrastructure through galvanization, enables biochemical processes through metalloenzymes, and continues to find new applications in emerging technologies.

A History Of Zinc

Zinc’s journey from an unknown component in brass alloys to becoming the fourth most widely used metal in the world reveals not just the evolution of metallurgical science, but also the interconnected nature of global trade routes and knowledge exchange, particularly between Asian and European civilizations.

Be sure to check out all other critical raw materials (CRMs), as well.

Chronology

• 2500 BCE – Zinc-containing ornaments made of alloys with 80-90% zinc content, plus lead, iron, and antimony found from this period
• 2000 BCE – Zinc ores first used for brass production in Indus Valley Civilization, marking earliest application of zinc in copper-zinc alloys
• 1400-1000 BCE – Brass containing zinc dating from this period found in Palestine; Judean brass contains 23% zinc content
• 750 BCE – Large-scale zinc production begins at Zawar mines in Rajasthan, India
• 700 BCE – Knowledge of zinc-containing brass production spreads to Ancient Greece
• 600 BCE – Definite evidence of zinc ore mining and production at mines in Rajasthan, India
• 500 BCE – Charaka Samhita medical text mentions zinc oxide (‘pushpanjan’) produced by oxidizing metal, used as eye ointment and wound treatment
• 400 BCE – Zinc mines at Zawar near Udaipur actively producing zinc; Kautilya’s Arthasastra mentions zinc-containing brass as ‘arkuta’ and refers to burning ‘rasa’ (zinc-containing metal) for eye salve production
• 322-187 BCE – Zawar zinc mines actively produce zinc during Mauryan period; radiocarbon dates of 430±100 BCE and 380±50 BCE (uncalibrated) confirm zinc mining activity
• 300 BCE – Charaka Samhita documents medicinal uses of zinc compounds
• 200 BCE – Romans produce zinc-containing brass by heating zinc oxide and charcoal with copper in crucibles
• 140 BCE – Roman ship Relitto del Pozzino wrecked carrying zinc carbonate pills used for treating eye conditions
• 30 BCE – Romans master zinc-containing brass manufacture using calamine (zinc carbonate) and copper
• 1st century BCE – Strabo mentions “drops of false silver” (zinc) which when mixed with copper make brass
• 1st century CE – Zinc compounds mentioned in Indian and Greek medical texts
• 300-500 – Charaka Samhita compiled, documenting zinc oxide production methods
• 750 – Commercial-scale zinc metal production begins at Zawar mines
• 800 – Rasaratna Samuchaya explains two types of zinc ores and describes two zinc distillation methods
• 9th century – Pure metallic zinc produced at Zawar using distillation process, oldest evidence of isolated zinc metal
• 12th century – India produces metallic zinc by sophisticated distillation at Zawar; regular zinc metal production by distillation established
• 1200 – Zinc distillation technique perfected at Zawar mines in Rajasthan
• 13th century – Indian metallurgists realize zinc must be produced as vapor then condensed; Rasaratna Samuccaya compiled describing zinc production; Metallic zinc smelted by reducing calamine with wool
• 1374 – Hindu king Madanapala’s medical lexicon recognizes zinc as distinct metal called Yasada or Jasada
• 1400s – Metallic zinc produced in India by heating calamine (zinc carbonate) with wool
• 1500 – Large-scale zinc refining carried out in China
• 16th century – China achieves large-scale zinc production; Paracelsus names metal “zincum” or “zinken”; China begins exporting zinc to Europe as “tutenag”
• 1550 – Zinc recognized as distinct metal in Germany around Harz Mountains for brass production
• 1595 – Abul Fazal’s Ain-i-Akbari mentions zinc mined at Jawar (Zawar) in India
• 1597 – Libavius in England receives zinc metal from India, names it Indian/Malabar lead
• 1600 – Zinc metal imported from India to Europe before European isolation achieved
• 1650 – Large-scale zinc ore mining and refinement established in Goslar, Germany
• 1657 – Munhta Nainsi records Jawar zinc mine yields worth Rs400-500 daily
• 1668 – P. M. de Respour reports extracting metallic zinc from zinc oxide in Europe
• 1730 – William Champion learns brass and zinc making techniques in Europe, joins Bristol Brass Company
• 1738 – William Champion patents zinc distillation process using calamine and charcoal in Great Britain
• 1742 – P.J. Melouin presents zinc coating process for iron to French Royal Academy; William Champion produces 400kg zinc per charge; Anton von Swab develops zinc extraction in Sweden
• 1743 – William Champion builds new zinc works at Warmley after smoke complaints
• 1746 – Andreas Sigismund Marggraf isolates pure zinc in Germany by heating calamine with carbon
• 1750 – Zinc metal price drops from £260 to £48 per ton due to increased production
• 1758 – John Champion patents zinc sulfide to zinc oxide conversion process for zinc production
• 1766 – Acid chloride baths developed to improve brightness of zinc deposits
• 1768 – William Champion’s zinc business declares bankruptcy
• 1780 – Luigi Galvani discovers electrical properties using zinc and copper with frog legs, leading to term “galvanization”
• 1789 – William Champion dies, having pioneered industrial zinc production
• 1798 – Johann Christian Ruberg improves zinc smelting with horizontal retort design
• 1799 – Johann Ruhberg builds zinc distillation furnace in Silesia
• 1800 – Alessandro Volta invents zinc-copper battery (Voltaic pile); Zinc electroplating process invented
• 1805-1810 – Jean-Jacques Daniel Dony develops Belgian zinc smelting process
• 1812 – Zawar zinc mining temporarily halts due to ore depth challenges
• 1815 – First zinc metal roofs installed in Paris buildings
• 1824 – Sir Humphrey Davy demonstrates zinc’s sacrificial protection of other metals from corrosion
• 1829 – Henry Palmer patents zinc-coated corrugated metal sheets
• 1830 – Zinc coating of iron widespread throughout Europe for corrosion protection
• 1836 – Stanislas Sorel patents hot-dip zinc galvanizing process in France
• 1837 – William Crawford receives British patent for zinc galvanizing process
• 1844 – British Navy first uses zinc-galvanized corrugated iron at Pembroke Docks
• 1850 – British zinc galvanizing industry consumes 10,000 tonnes zinc annually
• 1869 – Zinc identified as essential nutrient for Aspergillus niger fungus growth
• 1900 – Automated zinc coating machines invented; aluminum added to zinc coatings
• 1908 – Continuous hot-dip zinc galvanizing process revolutionizes industry
• 1913 – Commercial zinc electrolysis operations established
• 1916 – Peter Norman Nissen invents zinc-galvanized steel Nissen hut for military use
• 1917 – Electrolytic zinc production process developed commercially
• 1920s – Continuous zinc retort process developed in United States
• 1921-1928 – Vieille Montagne zinc plant in France converts from thermal to electrolytic process
• 1930 – St. Joseph Mineral Company develops pyrometallurgical zinc smelting
• 1930s – Electrothermic zinc process developed; First bright zinc electroplating using alkaline cyanide electrolyte
• 1932 – Carbonic anhydrase enzyme containing zinc discovered in red blood cells
• 1933 – Zinc-containing carbonic anhydrase first identified in cow red blood cells
• 1935 – Vieille Montagne installs electrolytic zinc process at Belgian plant
• 1936 – German engineers develop electro-galvanizing process for zinc coating
• 1939 – Carbonic anhydrase recognized as first zinc-containing enzyme
• 1940 – Zinc’s biochemical importance established through carbonic anhydrase research
• 1940s – Gladys Reid discovers zinc prevents facial eczema in New Zealand livestock; Zinc-galvanized steel extensively used in WWII equipment
• 1955 – Carboxypeptidase identified as second zinc-containing enzyme
• 1961 – Ananda S. Prasad identifies zinc deficiency syndrome in humans
• 1966 – Hindustan Zinc revives historic Zawar zinc mines; Improved zinc plating brightness achieved with acid chloride baths
• 1972 – Anaconda Company closes Montana zinc smelter, eliminating 162,000 tons US zinc production capacity
• 1976 – US FDA reports average daily zinc intake of 13.3 mg in American adults
• 1980s – Cyanide-free alkaline zinc plating processes developed; Global zinc emissions peak at 3.4 million tonnes annually
• 1988 – American Society of Metals designates Zawar as International Historical Landmark for zinc production
• 1990s – Asian zinc mining production triples over two decades; Global zinc emissions decline to 2.7 million tonnes annually
• 1995 – Froth flotation becomes primary zinc ore processing method globally
• 1998 – Review finds zinc oxide and zinc carbonate supplements poorly absorbed compared to zinc acetate
• 2000-2004 – US zinc consumption rises 1.5% to 1.45 million tonnes annually
• 2002 – United States becomes fifth largest zinc producer worldwide with 400,000 metric tons
• 2003 – Study recommends zinc oxide in cereals as cost-effective zinc fortification
• 2005 – Arctic study finds zinc concentrations don’t reflect global emission declines; Study shows various zinc compounds equally effective in food fortification
• 2006 – Human genome found to encode over 3000 zinc-binding proteins
• 2009 – Zinc reserve base estimated at 480 million tonnes globally
• 2010 – Refined zinc production increases 80% from 1990 levels while reserve lifetime remains stable
• 2012 – EU directives restrict hexavalent chromium, increasing zinc coating usage
• 2016 – Geological Society of India recognizes Zawar as National Geological Monument for zinc heritage
• 2017 – Global zinc consumption exceeds 14 million metric tons
• 2019 – Global zinc mine production reaches 12.9 million tonnes; 6 million tonnes zinc produced from recycled sources
• 2020 – Global zinc mine production estimated at 12 million tonnes; China produces 35% of world zinc
• 2021 – International Zinc Association projects zinc-ion battery market share growth from 1% to 5% by 2025
• 2022 – Glencore closes 100,000-tonne Portovesme zinc smelter in Italy; World zinc production rises to 13.28 million tonnes
• 2023 – Global zinc market reaches 18.4 million tons; Australia holds largest zinc reserves at 64 million metric tons
• 2024 – Zinc market projected to reach $90 billion by 2030; Nyrstar announces $150 million zinc facility expansion including gallium/germanium processing
• 2025 – Zinc trades at $2,716.20/tonne on July 1st; Zinc demand for renewable energy projected to reach 364,000 metric tons by 2030

Final Thoughts

The ancient metallurgists of Zawar who first captured zinc vapor in clay retorts could hardly have imagined their innovation would one day help build cities, power batteries, and sustain human health across the globe – yet their legacy endures in every galvanized surface and zinc-dependent enzyme that shapes our modern world.

As we face contemporary challenges of sustainable development and resource management, zinc’s history reminds us that breakthrough innovations often arise from persistent experimentation and cross-cultural knowledge exchange.

Thanks for reading!

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