Executive Summary

This comprehensive history traces neodymium’s path from laboratory curiosity to industrial cornerstone, documenting the scientific breakthroughs, technological innovations, and geopolitical forces that have shaped its story over more than a century – a story that reveals three key themes:

First, the story of neodymium demonstrates how seemingly obscure scientific discoveries can become foundational to entire industries—who could have predicted that this “new twin” element would one day power electric vehicles, wind turbines, and countless electronic devices?

Second, the story of neodymium illustrates the critical importance of materials science in enabling the clean energy transition; neodymium magnets are not merely components, but enablers of sustainability, making renewable energy and electric transportation viable at scale.

Third, the story of neodymium exposes the vulnerabilities inherent in concentrated supply chains, with China’s dominance in neodymium production serving as both a cautionary tale and a catalyst for efforts to diversify global rare earth sources.

Introduction

The story of neodymium is one of mistaken identities, painstaking separations, and a element hiding in plain sight for decades. Even after its discovery, neodymium spent decades as little more than a specialty material for colored glass. Yet, today, without this silvery metal, much of modern technology would simply not work.

Still, most people have never heard of neodymium…

History

Reader note: For more information, check out as a group the light rare earth elements (LREEs), the heavy rare earth elements (HREEs), all rare earth elements (REEs), and all other critical raw materials (CRMs). In addition, the complete history of all 17 rare earth elements can be found here, while information on the use of rare earths in quantum computing here.

The Age of Confusion: Discovering the Undiscoverable (1751-1885)

The journey toward neodymium began in 1751, when Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral at the Bastnäs mine—later named cerite. This unassuming rock held secrets that would take over a century to unravel. In 1803, Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger isolated what they believed was a new oxide from cerite, naming it “ceria” after the dwarf planet Ceres. Simultaneously and independently, Martin Heinrich Klaproth in Germany made the same discovery—a testament to the reproducibility that marks genuine scientific progress.

But ceria was not what it seemed. In 1839, Carl Gustaf Mosander began his systematic dismantling of the rare earth puzzle, discovering that ceria was actually a mixture of oxides. The following year, Mosander performed what seemed like chemical alchemy: he separated cerium oxide into yellow cerium oxide, white lanthanum oxide, and a mysterious pinkish third component. He called this substance “didymium,” from the Greek for “twin,” acknowledging its dual nature even as he misunderstood its true complexity.

In 1841, Mosander incorrectly declared didymium a new element—a mistake that would persist for decades. So convincing was this error that by 1869, didymium appeared in Dmitri Mendeleev’s groundbreaking first edition of the periodic table with the symbol Di, despite being a mixture rather than a pure element. This historical footnote reminds us that even our most fundamental scientific frameworks are built through iterative correction.

The walls began closing in on didymium’s false identity in 1874 when Per Teodor Cleve predicted it contained at least two elements. Throughout the late 1870s and early 1880s, researchers chipped away at the problem: Lecoq de Boisbaudran isolated samarium from it in 1879, gadolinium was extracted in 1880, and in 1882, Bohuslav Brauner demonstrated that didymium varied according to its mineral source—clear evidence of its composite nature.

The breakthrough came in 1885 in Vienna, where Carl Auer von Welsbach performed a tour de force of chemical patience. Through fractional crystallization of double ammonium nitrate tetrahydrates—repeated an exhausting 167 times—von Welsbach finally separated didymium into two distinct elements: neodymium and praseodymium. He named the new element “neodidymium” (later shortened to neodymium), combining the Greek “neos” (new) and “didymos” (twin). Crucially, Robert Bunsen, the world’s leading expert on didymium, immediately accepted von Welsbach’s discovery, providing the validation that transformed speculation into scientific fact.

From Element to Material: Early Applications (1925-1950)

For four decades after its discovery, neodymium remained largely a laboratory curiosity. That changed in 1925 when H. Kremers first isolated pure neodymium metal, transforming the element from a chemical abstraction into a tangible material that could be worked, shaped, and applied.

The first commercial application emerged in 1927, when neodymium compounds found use as glass dyes. Leo Moser at Moser Glassworks in Czechoslovakia began experiments with neodymium for glass coloration that November, initiating cooperation with Berlin specialists in chemical glass colors. After two years of meticulous experiments and test smelts, Moser developed special types of molten glass colored with neodymium oxide by 1929.

By 1930, neodymium glasses exhibited a distinctive reddish or orange tinge—traces of praseodymium that proved impossible to completely remove with the separation techniques of the era. Moser’s “Alexandrite” glass, using neodymium in 5% concentrations, became wildly popular. American glasshouses rushed to emulate it: Heisey, Fostoria (calling their version “wisteria”), Cambridge (“heatherbloom”), and Steuben (also “wisteria”) all produced neodymium-doped glasses. These “rare earth doped” glasses represented neodymium’s first commercial success, though on a scale that would seem quaint compared to what was to come.

The game changed fundamentally in 1950 when Lindsay Chemical Division commercialized large-scale ion-exchange purification of neodymium, achieving purities exceeding 99% from monazite ore. This breakthrough made high-purity neodymium economically viable for the first time. That same year, the Mountain Pass Mine in California’s Mojave Desert began operations, initially extracting europium for color television phosphors but later expanding to become a crucial source of neodymium.

The Laser Age: Neodymium Finds Its Light (1961-1972)

The 1960s witnessed neodymium’s transformation from specialty material to cutting-edge technology enabler. In 1961, researchers developed the Nd:CaWO₄ (neodymium-doped calcium tungstate) laser, making neodymium the first lanthanide to produce laser radiation. When incorporated into glass fiber, neodymium produced stimulated emission—the fundamental principle behind laser operation. The Nd:CaWO₄ laser became historically the third laser put into operation, following only the ruby and U³⁺:CaF lasers.

Three years later, in 1964, Joseph E. Geusic and colleagues at Bell Laboratories demonstrated laser operation of neodymium ions in a YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) matrix, creating the Nd:YAG laser. This development would prove revolutionary: Nd:YAG lasers would eventually become workhorses of industry, medicine, and research, used for everything from precision cutting and welding to ophthalmological surgery and lidar systems.

A fascinating footnote from this era: in 1972, analysis of isotope ratios at Oklo, Gabon revealed neodymium with an isotopic composition different from natural neodymium—conclusive evidence that natural nuclear fission had occurred there billions of years ago. Neodymium had become not just a technological tool, but a geological detective, revealing secrets of Earth’s nuclear past.

The Magnetic Revolution: Neodymium’s Defining Moment (1972-1988)

The story of neodymium magnets centers on one man’s persistence against institutional skepticism: Masato Sagawa. In 1972, Sagawa began work at Fujitsu Laboratories, where he would conceive the sintered neodymium-iron-boron magnet. But the path from conception to realization was far from smooth.

The geopolitical landscape of the late 1970s created the conditions for breakthrough. In 1979, political unrest in Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo) caused cobalt prices to spike, encouraging researchers worldwide to seek rare earth magnets without cobalt. This economic pressure turned neodymium research from academic interest into industrial imperative.

By 1980, battery research had led to nickel-metal hydride batteries using neodymium, but Sagawa’s magnet work faced resistance. In 1981, frustrated by lack of supervisor support at Fujitsu, Sagawa resigned. It was a career gamble that would pay off spectacularly: in 1982, he joined Sumitomo Special Metals and shortly thereafter developed the NdFeB magnet. That July, he filed for a patent on the Nd₂Fe₁₄B compound composition: 31% neodymium, 61% iron, and 1% boron.

Unbeknownst to Sagawa, General Motors researchers were pursuing the same holy grail. In 1982, both General Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals independently discovered the neodymium-iron-boron compound. The parallel discovery became public in November 1983, when Sagawa and John Croat independently presented their NdFeB magnet discoveries at the Magnetism and Magnetic Materials Conference in Pittsburgh—one of those rare moments in science when simultaneous discovery validates the fundamental soundness of an approach.

By 1984, both teams had officially developed the Nd₂Fe₁₄B tetragonal crystalline structure. The magnets they created were extraordinary: up to ten times stronger than ferrite magnets and significantly more powerful than the samarium-cobalt magnets that represented the previous state of the art. Sagawa’s achievements earned him the Osaka Prize in 1984 and the American Physical Society International Prize for New Materials in 1986.

General Motors, recognizing the commercial potential, founded Magnequench in 1986 to produce neodymium-iron-boron magnets, building a 175,000-square-foot plant in Anderson, Indiana. Sagawa, meanwhile, founded Intermetallics Co. Ltd in Kyoto in 1988, a research and development company devoted entirely to advancing neodymium magnet technology.

Globalization and the China Factor (1990-2010)

The 1990s saw neodymium magnets proliferate into consumer electronics. Nickel-metal hydride batteries using neodymium became ubiquitous in portable electronics like video cameras by 1990. But a more consequential shift was occurring in the production landscape.

In 1995, General Motors made a decision that would reshape the global rare earth industry: it sold its Magnequench division and neodymium magnet patents to a consortium that included Beijing San Huan New Material High-tech and China National Non-Ferrous Metals Import & Export Corporation. The technology that American researchers had pioneered was now substantially under Chinese control.

The transfer accelerated through the late 1990s and early 2000s. In 1998, Magnequench acquired GA Powders to develop gas atomization processes for making neodymium-iron-boron powder. By 2000, Magnequench had opened a neodymium powder plant in Tianjin, China, and moved its GA Powders production facilities from Idaho Falls to the newly constructed Chinese plant. In 2004, the final shoe dropped: Magnequench shuttered its last neodymium magnet plant in Indiana on September 15, fired 450 workers, and began shipping machine tools to China.

By 2004, world production of neodymium stood at about 7,000 tons, with the bulk coming from China. The automotive industry was becoming a major consumer: Toyota’s Prius hybrid cars, released in 2001, required one kilogram of neodymium per vehicle. China’s strategic importance became undeniable in 2010 when it temporarily restricted rare earth exports, including neodymium, causing price spikes that reverberated through global supply chains. China simultaneously increased its estimates of neodymium reserves, signaling long-term control over supply.

The Modern Era: Strategic Resource and Technological Imperative (2011-Present)

The 2010 export restrictions served as a wake-up call. In 2011, ARPA-E awarded $31.6 million to fund rare-earth substitute projects aimed at reducing dependence on neodymium—though finding alternatives to neodymium’s magnetic performance proved challenging. Production in China continued its explosive growth: from 50,000 tons of neodymium magnets produced officially in 2012, output reached 80,000 tons in 2013.

Recognition of Sagawa’s pioneering work continued: in 2012, he received the Japan Prize for developing the world’s highest performing sintered Nd-Fe-B permanent magnet and founded NDFEB Corporation for consultation services. In March 2022, he was awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering—becoming the first annual winner of a prize previously awarded bi-annually. Later that year, Sagawa and John Croat jointly received the IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies, acknowledging that their invention had enabled the clean energy transition.

Meanwhile, efforts to break China’s near-monopoly gained traction. MP Materials restarted neodymium production at the Mountain Pass mine in 2017, with production fully resuming in Q1 2018. By 2019, China was still responsible for 80% of rare earth imports to the United States and supplied more than 2,000 tons of neodymium annually to the rest of the world as metal and oxide exports.

The statistics from 2020 illustrate China’s continued dominance: China produced an estimated 29,000 tonnes of neodymium oxide, compared to Australia’s 7,000 tonnes and approximately 1,000 tonnes each from the United States and Myanmar. By 2021, China was mining and producing 87% of the world’s neodymium magnets.

The push for domestic production intensified. In December 2021, General Motors announced plans to source neodymium rare earth magnets from new U.S.-based manufacturing facilities in partnership with MP Materials and Vacuumschmelze. MP Materials announced plans to build a neodymium-iron-boron magnet facility in Texas capable of supplying 500,000 EV motors for GM.

By 2023, world mine production of neodymium reached 350,000 metric tons of rare-earth-oxide content. China’s share was 240,000 metric tons—nearly 70% of global production. The United States had increased its share to 12.3% of global production, but remained heavily dependent on imports: 70% of U.S. rare earth imports originated from China, valued at $170 million. The global neodymium market size was estimated between $2.83 and $5.28 billion.

The trend continued in 2024: China’s domestic output reached 270,000 metric tons, while U.S. production climbed to 45,000 metric tons, up from 41,600 in 2023. Global rare earth metal production reached 390,000 metric tons—nearly threefold the 132,000 metric tons produced in 2017.

A milestone occurred in January 2025 when MP Materials commenced neodymium-praseodymium metal production at its Independence facility in Fort Worth, Texas—marking the first rare earth metal production in the United States in decades. Trial production of neodymium-iron-boron magnets began at the facility, with commercial deliveries planned for year-end. In July 2025, Apple announced a $500 million investment in MP Materials to develop rare earth magnet production lines specifically for Apple products, signaling that consumer electronics giants were taking supply chain security seriously.

Chronology

This chronology traces neodymium’s journey across 274 years, from the first discovery of cerite at Sweden’s Bastnäs mine in 1751, through the recent opening of America’s first rare earth metal production facility in decades:

• 1751 – Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs, later named cerite, beginning the chain of discoveries that would eventually lead to neodymium
• 1803 – Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger isolated a new oxide from cerite, which they named ceria after the dwarf planet Ceres, marking an early step toward neodymium’s discovery; ceria was simultaneously and independently isolated in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth
• 1839 – Carl Gustaf Mosander began systematic analysis of the mixed rare earths, discovering that ceria was actually a mixture of oxides; Axel Erdmann discovered lanthana containing neodymium in a new Norwegian mineral, which he named mosandrite after Mosander
• 1840 – Mosander separated cerium oxide into yellow cerium oxide, white lanthanum oxide, and a pinkish third component which he called “didymium” meaning “twin”
• 1841 – Carl Gustaf Mosander incorrectly identified didymium as a new element, a substance that would later prove to contain neodymium
• 1843 – Mosander reported his discovery of didymium along with erbium and terbium in yttria (a white solid compound of yttrium and oxygen), with his paper read at the 13th meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science held at Cork, Ireland
• 1869 – Didymium appeared in Dmitri Mendeleev’s first edition of the periodic table with the symbol Di, despite being a mixture rather than a pure element
• 1874 – Per Teodor Cleve predicted that didymium contained at least two elements, setting the stage for neodymium’s discovery
• 1879 – Lecoq de Boisbaudran isolated samarium from didymium (a mixture of two rare earth elements – neodymium and praseodymium), the first step in separating its components
• 1880 – Gadolinium was extracted from didymium (neodymium and praseodymium), further revealing its composite nature
• 1882 – Bohuslav Brauner at Prague studied didymium and showed it varied according to the mineral from which it came
• 1885 – Carl Auer von Welsbach in Vienna separated didymium into neodymium and praseodymium through fractional crystallization of the double ammonium nitrate tetrahydrates; von Welsbach named the new element “neodidymium” (“new twin”), combining the Greek words “neos” and “didymos”, later shortened to neodymium; Robert Bunsen, the world expert on didymium, immediately accepted von Welsbach’s discovery of neodymium, providing crucial validation; von Welsbach used 167 crystallizations to successfully separate neodymium from praseodymium, demonstrating the difficulty of rare earth separation
• 1925 – H. Kremers first isolated pure neodymium metal
• 1927 – Neodymium compounds were first commercially used as glass dyes; Leo Moser began experiments with neodymium for glass coloration in November; Leo Moser’s technological innovation at Moser Glassworks led to cooperation with Berlin specialists in chemical glass colors
• 1929 – After two years of experiments and test smelts, Moser developed special types of molten glass colored with neodymium oxide
• 1930 – Neodymium glasses were made with a reddish or orange tinge due to traces of praseodymium; Moser’s “Alexandrite” glass using neodymium was widely emulated by American glasshouses including Heisey, Fostoria (“wisteria”), Cambridge (“heatherbloom”), and Steuben (“wisteria”); neodymium glasses using 5% neodymium oxide in the glass melt became commercially successful, with Moser referring to these as “rare earth doped” glasses
• 1950 – Commercial purification of neodymium was carried out through ion-exchange method by Lindsay Chemical Division; Lindsay Chemical Division became the first to commercialize large-scale ion-exchange purification of neodymium; high purity (>99%) neodymium was primarily obtained through ion exchange process from monazite; Mountain Pass Mine in California’s Mojave Desert began extracting europium for color television phosphors, later expanding to neodymium production
• 1961 – The Nd:CaWO4 (neodymium-doped calcium tungstate) laser was developed, making neodymium the first lanthanide used for laser radiation; neodymium was incorporated into glass fiber and found to produce stimulated emission; the Nd:CaWO4 laser became historically the third laser put into operation (after ruby and U3+:CaF laser)
• 1964 – Geusic et al. demonstrated operation of neodymium ion in YAG matrix Y3Al5O12, creating the Nd:YAG laser; Joseph E. Geusic and colleagues at Bell Laboratories first demonstrated laser operation of Nd:YAG
• 1972 – Masato Sagawa began working at Fujitsu Laboratories where he would conceive the sintered neodymium-iron-boron magnet; analysis of isotope ratios at Oklo, Gabon revealed neodymium isotopic composition different from natural neodymium, confirming natural nuclear fission had occurred
• 1979 – Rising cost of cobalt due to political unrest in Zaire encouraged researchers to seek rare earth magnets without cobalt, spurring neodymium magnet research
• 1980 – Battery research led to development of nickel-metal hydride batteries using neodymium
• 1981 – Masato Sagawa resigned from Fujitsu Laboratories due to lack of supervisor support for his neodymium magnet research
• 1982 – General Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals independently discovered the neodymium-iron-boron (Nd2Fe14B) compound; Masato Sagawa joined Sumitomo Special Metals and shortly after developed the NdFeB magnet; Sagawa filed for patent on the Nd2Fe14B compound composition (31% neodymium, 61% iron, 1% boron) in July
• 1983 – Masato Sagawa and John Croat independently presented their NdFeB magnet discoveries at the Magnetism and Magnetic Materials Conference in Pittsburgh in November; General Motors researchers patented neodymium-iron–boron magnets
• 1984 – General Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals officially developed the Nd2Fe14B tetragonal crystalline structure; Masato Sagawa received the Osaka Prize for his neodymium magnet work
• 1986 – Masato Sagawa received the American Physical Society International Prize for New Materials for his neodymium magnet work; General Motors founded Magnequench to produce neodymium-iron-boron magnets and built 175,000 sq. ft. plant in Anderson, Indiana
• 1988 – Masato Sagawa founded Intermetallics Co. Ltd in Kyoto, a research and development company devoted to neodymium magnets
• 1990 – Nickel-metal hydride batteries using neodymium became popular in portable electronics like video cameras
• 1995 – Beijing San Huan New Material High-tech, Inc., China National Non-Ferrous Metals Import & Export Corporation, and Sextant Group acquired Magnequench; General Motors sold Magnequench division and its neodymium magnet patents to a consortium including two Chinese partners
• 1998 – Magnequench acquired GA Powders to develop gas atomization process for making neodymium-iron-boron powder
• 2000 – Magnequench’s Technology Center opened in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina; Magnequench opened neodymium powder plant in Tianjin, China to expand capacity; GA Powders production facilities for neodymium moved from Idaho Falls to newly constructed plant in Tianjin, China
• 2001 – Toyota Prius hybrid cars using neodymium magnets were released, with each requiring one kilogram of neodymium
• 2004 – World production of neodymium was about 7,000 tons, with bulk from China; Magnequench shuttered its last neodymium magnet plant in Indiana on September 15, fired 450 workers and began shipping machine tools to China
• 2010 – China temporarily restricted rare earth exports including neodymium, causing price spikes; China increased its estimate of neodymium reserves from previous assessments
• 2011 – ARPA-E awarded $31.6 million to fund rare-earth substitute projects to reduce dependence on neodymium
• 2012 – Masato Sagawa founded NDFEB Corporation for consultation services on neodymium magnets; Masato Sagawa received the Japan Prize for developing the world’s highest performing sintered Nd-Fe-B type permanent magnet; 50,000 tons of neodymium magnets were produced officially in China annually
• 2013 – 80,000 tons of neodymium magnets produced in “company-by-company” build-up in China; Masato Sagawa continued work at NDFEB Corporation for neodymium magnet consultation services
• 2015 – Nitto Denko of Japan announced new method of sintering neodymium magnet material using “organic/inorganic hybrid technology”
• 2017 – MP Materials restarted neodymium production at Mountain Pass mine after purchasing it from bankrupt Molycorp; China’s neodymium mining volume reached 27,000 tons, having doubled from 12,000 tons in 2000; China’s demand for neodymium at use stage increased nearly 20 times compared to 2000
• 2018 – Mountain Pass mine re-entered neodymium production in Q1 under MP Materials ownership
• 2019 – China supplied more than 2,000 tons of neodymium annually to the rest of the world as metal and oxide exports; China was responsible for 80% of rare earths imports including neodymium to the United States; China’s neodymium mining reached 20,000 tons
• 2020 – China produced an estimated 29,000 tonnes of neodymium oxide; Australia produced about 7,000 tonnes of neodymium oxide; United States and Myanmar each produced around 1,000 tonnes of neodymium oxide
• 2021 – China continues to mine and produce 87% of the world’s neodymium magnets (source: Marco Polo 16th November 2021); General Motors announced plans in December to source neodymium rare earth magnets from new U.S.-based manufacturing facilities with MP Materials and Vacuumschmelze; MP Materials announced plans to build neodymium-iron-boron magnet facility in Texas to supply 500,000 EV motors for GM
• 2022 – Dr. Masato Sagawa awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering in March for developing sintered neodymium-iron-boron permanent magnet; Dr. Sagawa became the first annual winner of the Queen Elizabeth Prize, which was previously awarded bi-annually; Masato Sagawa and John Croat jointly awarded IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for neodymium magnet development
• 2023 – MP Materials’ Texas facility for neodymium-iron-boron magnets planned to open; World mine production of neodymium reached 350,000 metric tons of rare-earth-oxide content; China’s mine production of neodymium was 240,000 metric tons of rare-earth oxide, accounting for nearly 70% of global production; United States neodymium rare earth production was 12.3% of global production
• 2024 – China’s domestic output of rare earths including neodymium was 270,000 metric tons; U.S. produced 45,000 metric tons of rare earths including neodymium, up from 41,600 metric tons in 2023; Global rare earth metal production including neodymium reached 390,000 metric tons, up threefold from 132,000 metric tons in 2017; 70% of U.S. rare earth imports including neodymium originated from China; Value of U.S. rare earth imports including neodymium was $170 million; Global neodymium market size estimated between $2.83-5.28 billion
• 2025 – MP Materials commenced neodymium-praseodymium metal production at Independence facility in Fort Worth, Texas in January, marking first rare earth metal production in U.S. in decades; Trial production of neodymium-iron-boron magnets began at Independence facility with commercial deliveries planned for year-end; Apple announced $500 million investment in MP Materials in July to develop rare earth magnet production lines for Apple products
• 2026 – Neodymium-iron-boron magnet market predicted to be worth over $19.3 billion

Final Thoughts

Neodymium has, since its discovery in 1885, transformed from obscure, misidentified, mineral to one of the most crucial materials of the 21st century. What began as painstaking crystallization experiments in 19th-century European laboratories has evolved into a multi-billion dollar industry central to renewable energy, electric vehicles, and modern electronics, with neodymium powering the world’s strongest permanent magnets and enabling the miniaturization of countless devices.

Yet, neodymium’s history is far from complete. Looking forward, the next chapters of this metal’s story will undoubtedly be written by those who recognize neodymium’s importance at the intersection of technological progress and geopolitical competition.

As always, though, innovation will likely (and sadly) be driven by human greed rather than human need.

Thanks for reading!

References

[1] Wikipedia – Neodymium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium

[2] Britannica – Neodymium | Rare Earth Element, Uses & Properties
https://www.britannica.com/science/neodymium

[3] Chemistry Learner – Neodymium Facts, Symbol, Discovery, Properties, Uses
https://www.chemistrylearner.com/neodymium.html

[4] AZoM – Properties: Neodymium – History, Properties and Applications
https://www.azom.com/properties.aspx?ArticleID=1595

[5] RSC – Neodymium – Element information, properties and uses
https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/60/neodymium

[6] Periodic Table – Neodymium Element | Uses, Facts, Physical & Chemical Characteristics
https://periodic-table.com/neodymium/

[7] Encyclopedia.com – Carl Gustaf Mosander
https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/historians-miscellaneous-biographies/carl-gustaf-mosander

[8] SpringerLink – Carl Gustaf Mosander and His Research on Rare Earths
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-0287-9_3

[9] Wikipedia – Carl Gustaf Mosander
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_Mosander

[10] Chemicool – Neodymium
https://www.chemicool.com/elements/neodymium.html

[11] Chemistry World – Neodymium Podcast
https://www.chemistryworld.com/podcasts/neodymium/3005866.article

[12] Britannica – Carl Gustaf Mosander
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Gustaf-Mosander

[13] BuyMagnets – The History of Neodymium Magnets, Part One
https://buymagnets.com/the-history-of-neodymium-magnets-part-one/

[14] BuyMagnets – The History of Neodymium Magnets, Part Two
https://buymagnets.com/the-history-of-neodymium-magnets-part-two/

[15] K&J Magnetics Blog – The History of Neodymium Magnets
https://www.kjmagnetics.com/blog/the-history-of-neodymium-magnets

[16] Wikipedia – Neodymium magnet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium_magnet

[17] Plant Automation – Magnequench International Inc.
https://www.plantautomation.com/doc/magnequench-international-inc-0002

[18] Arms Mag – History and Future of Neodymium Magnets Development
https://www.armsmag.com/news-history-future-of-neodymium-magnets.html

[19] Bunting Magnetics Europe – The History of Neodymium Magnets
https://www.bunting-berkhamsted.com/the-history-of-neodymium-magnets/

[20] Live Science – Facts About Neodymium
https://www.livescience.com/37656-neodymium.html

[21] Wikipedia – Moser (glass company)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moser_(glass_company)

[22] Forest Metrics – Neodymium “Alexandrite” Glass Rose Bowl
https://forestmetrics.net/?p=289

[23] Science History Institute – History and Future of Rare Earth Elements
https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/classroom-activities/role-playing-games/case-of-rare-earth-elements/history-future/

[24] ScienceDirect – Neodymium Laser
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/neodymium-laser

[25] ScienceDirect – Neodymium YAG Laser
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/neodymium-yag-laser

[26] ScienceDirect – Hair removal using an Nd: YAG laser system
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0733863505700966

[27] Wikipedia – Nd:YAG laser
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nd:YAG_laser

[28] SpringerLink – A Brief History of the Nd:YAG Laser
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-3728-0_2

[29] Wikipedia – Masato Sagawa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masato_Sagawa

[30] Wikipedia – Isotopes of neodymium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_neodymium

[31] Wikipedia – Natural nuclear fission reactor
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor

[32] Borates Today – Boron Magnets Prize For Inventor
https://borates.today/boron-magnets-prize/

[33] CIWEM – Dr Masato Sagawa wins 2022 Queen Elizabeth Prize
https://www.ciwem.org/news/dr-masato-sagawa-wins-2022-queen-elizabeth-prize-in-engineering

[34] Queen Elizabeth Prize – Nd-Fe-B permanent magnet developer wins 2022 Prize
https://qeprize.org/news/nd-fe-b-permanent-magnet-developer-wins-2022-queen-elizabeth-prize-for-engineering

[35] Euromag – Read more about Neodymium magnets
https://www.euromag-magnets.com/en/neodymium-characteristics/

[36] Vector Magnets – Salute to Mr. Masato Sagawa
http://m.vectormagnets.com/n1806467/Salute-to-Mr-Masato-Sagawa-the-inventor-of-NdFeB-Magnets.htm

[37] Queen Elizabeth Prize – Dr Masato Sagawa
https://qeprize.org/winners/dr-masato-sagawa

[38] Reuters – General Motors returns to rare earth magnets with two U.S. deals
https://www.reuters.com/business/general-motors-sets-rare-earth-magnet-supply-deals-with-two-us-suppliers-2021-12-09/

[39] CounterPunch – The Saga of Magnequench
https://www.counterpunch.org/2006/04/07/the-saga-of-magnequench/

[40] CNBC – The new U.S. plan to rival China and end cornering of market in rare earth metals
https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/17/the-new-us-plan-to-rival-chinas-dominance-in-rare-earth-metals.html

[41] Mining Digital – Focus on: Neodymium – Rare Earth Mineral With Pulling Power
https://miningdigital.com/supply-chain-management/neodymium-the-rare-earth-powering-modern-industry

[42] MIT – Locations of Deposits
https://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2016/finalwebsite/solutions/deposits.html

[43] ScienceDirect – Dynamic neodymium stocks and flows analysis in China
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S092134492100361X

[44] Investing News – Top 10 Countries Leading Rare Earth Metal Production
https://investingnews.com/daily/resource-investing/critical-metals-investing/rare-earth-investing/rare-earth-metal-production/

[45] Process Engineering – Permanent magnet pioneer Sagawa wins 2022 Prize
https://processengineering.co.uk/article/2090769/permanent-magnet-pioneer-sagawa-wins-2022-queen-elizabeth-prize-for-engineering

[46] IOM3 – 2022 Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering winner announced
https://www.iom3.org/resource/2022-queen-elizabeth-prize-for-engineering-winner-announced.html

[47] Statista – Rare earth mine production worldwide 2023
https://www.statista.com/statistics/1187186/global-rare-earths-mine-production/