Scandium, the elusive 21st element, represents one of chemistry’s most intriguing success stories—a metal predicted before its discovery, found where expected, yet remaining tantalizingly scarce in practical applications for nearly a century.

This silvery-white transition metal, bearing the atomic symbol Sc, has journeyed from theoretical prediction to modern aerospace marvel, defying its classification as a rare earth element by proving both more common than initially believed and more difficult to harness than anticipated. Today, scandium stands at the forefront of materials science, enabling breakthrough applications in aluminum alloys for aerospace, solid oxide fuel cells for clean energy, and additive manufacturing technologies that promise to revolutionize industrial production. Its story weaves together the triumph of periodic table predictions, the persistence of analytical chemistry, and the ongoing quest to unlock the full potential of an element that remains, despite its terrestrial abundance, one of the most challenging metals to extract and utilize economically.

For more information, check out the light rare earth elements (LREEs) as a group, the heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) as a group, and all rare earth elements (REEs). Be sure to check out all other critical raw materials (CRMs), as well. The complete history of all 17 rare earth elements can be found here.

Read about the use of rare earths in quantum computing here.

A History Of Scandium

The chronicle of scandium unfolds as a testament to scientific prediction, patient discovery, and technological innovation spanning over 150 years. From Mendeleev’s theoretical framework to modern aerospace applications, scandium’s journey reflects the evolution of chemistry from academic curiosity to industrial necessity, marked by breakthrough discoveries in Scandinavian minerals, pioneering metallurgical achievements, and revolutionary applications that continue to emerge in the 21st century.

Chronology

• 1869 – Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existence of an element he called “ekaboron” with atomic weight between calcium (40) and titanium (48), proposing specific chemical and physical properties for this missing element in his periodic table [1]
• 1876 – Lars Fredrik Nilson discovered scandium in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite at Uppsala University, Sweden, though some sources date this to 1879 [2]
• 1879 – Nilson successfully isolated scandium oxide (Sc2O3) from 10 kilograms of euxenite and other rare earth residues, producing about 2 grams of high-purity scandium oxide and naming the element “scandium” after Scandinavia; Per Teodor Cleve independently isolated scandium oxide from euxenite at about the same time, confirming scandium matched Mendeleev’s predicted ekaboron with atomic weight 44 [3, 4, 5]
• 1907 – Per Teodor Cleve definitively confirmed scandium’s existence through independent isolation from euxenite, providing critical validation of Nilson’s findings and solidifying scandium’s place in the periodic table [3]
• 1937 – Fischer, Brünger, and Grieneisen first produced metallic scandium by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides at 700-800°C using tungsten wire and molten zinc electrodes in a graphite crucible [1, 6, 7]
• 1938 – The Britannica source reports metallic scandium was first prepared by electrolysis of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides in a eutectic mixture [8]
• 1940s – During World War II, Soviet scientists began investigating scandium for military applications, laying groundwork for later aerospace uses [9]
• 1950s – Soviet metallurgists continued classified research on scandium alloys for strategic military applications, particularly for missile components [9]
• 1960 – The first pound of 99% pure scandium metal was produced, marking a milestone in scandium purification technology [1, 5, 7]
• 1965 – Lowell A. Willey filed original U.S. patent application Ser. No. 474,470 for aluminum scandium alloys, which would become U.S. Patent 3,619,181 [10]
• 1969 – Russian patent issued for scandium-aluminum alloys, marking early development of these materials in the Soviet Union [9]
• 1971 – U.S. Patent 3,619,181 for aluminum scandium alloy granted to Lowell A. Willey and assigned to Aluminum Company of America, marking the beginning of aluminum alloy production with scandium [1, 10]
• 1973 – Pure scandium metal was produced by electrolysis of molten scandium chloride according to one source [11]
• 1976 – Aegirine-acmite and alkali amphibole at the Fe-U deposit in Zhovti Vody, Ukraine were identified as potential scandium sources, and the deposit became the dominant scandium source during the Cold War [12]
• 1983 – President Ronald Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) on March 23, with scandium-containing gadolinium-scandium-gallium garnet (GSGG) laser crystals later used in the program throughout the 1980s and 1990s [1, 13]
• 1995 – U.S. Patent 5,620,652 filed for aluminum alloys containing scandium with zirconium additions, expanding applications in recreational, aerospace, ground transportation and marine structures [14]
• 1999 – Emil Baur and H. Preis of Switzerland are mentioned as having conducted research on solid oxide electrolytes using scandium among other elements, though this occurred in the late 1930s [15]
• 2003 – Only three mines produced scandium: uranium and iron mines in Zhovti Vody, Ukraine; rare-earth mines in Bayan Obo, China; and apatite mines in Kola Peninsula, Russia, before Zhovti Vody closed that year [1, 12, 16]
• 2004 – U.S. Patent 6,711,819 issued to Smith & Wesson for scandium containing aluminum alloy firearms, containing 0.05% to 0.30% scandium for lightweight, high-strength applications [17]
• 2006 – Knipling, Dunand, and Seidman published criteria for developing castable, creep-resistant aluminum-based alloys, advancing understanding of scandium’s role in aluminum alloys [30]
• 2007 – Røyset published comprehensive review “Scandium in aluminium alloys: physical metallurgy, properties and applications” in Metallurgical Science and Technology [31]
• 2008 – Laguna-Bercero, Skinner, and Kilner demonstrated performance of solid oxide electrolysis cells based on scandia stabilized zirconia, advancing SOFC technology [32]
• 2009 – Principal scandium uses included aluminum alloys for sporting equipment (baseball bats, bicycle frames, lacrosse sticks), with decreasing demand but stable supply; new demand expected from fuel cells and aerospace [30]
• 2013 – APWORKS GmbH founded as an Airbus Group spin-off in Taufkirchen near Munich, Germany, specializing in additive manufacturing with scandium-aluminum alloys; APWORKS marketed high-strength scandium-containing aluminum alloy processed using metal 3D-printing (Laser Powder Bed Fusion) under trademark Scalmalloy, claiming very high strength and ductility [1, 18, 19]
• 2015 – APWORKS became first beta customer of Additive Industries’ MetalFAB1 system, beginning partnership for aerospace additive manufacturing applications [18]
• 2016 – APWORKS launched the Light Rider, world’s first 3D-printed motorcycle using Scalmalloy material, weighing 35 kg with 6 kg frame, demonstrating 30% weight reduction over conventional e-motorcycles [20]
• 2017 – U.S. Patent 9,551,050 issued for aluminum alloy with additions of scandium, zirconium and erbium, addressing high cost of scandium by optimizing alloy compositions [21]
• 2018 – Premium AEROTEC acquired APWORKS from Airbus, reinforcing position in additive manufacturing sector while APWORKS remained independent company; Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) market represented estimated 76% of scandium oxide demand, with consistent strong growth potential exceeding 20% annually [19, 22]
• 2020 – FIA (Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile) approved Scalmalloy for Formula 1 use, making it accessible to all F1 teams for vehicle engineering and manufacturing [23]
• 2021 – Rio Tinto invested US$6 million for construction of first scandium oxide production module at Rio Tinto Fer et Titane metallurgical complex in Sorel-Tracy, Quebec, with initial capacity of 3 tonnes per year [24]
• 2022 – Global scandium production reported at approximately 45 tonnes per year with extraction potential of 1,500 tonnes per year at present technology levels [25]
• 2024 – APWORKS developed Scalmalloy CX for cryogenic applications, maintaining superior fracture toughness and ductility at temperatures as low as 22K (-251°C), particularly for hydrogen propulsion systems; Scandium Canada filed provisional U.S. patent for aluminum alloy powders for additive manufacturing, developing two aluminum-scandium alloys specifically for AM applications with McMaster University [26, 27, 28]
• 2025 – APWORKS and Equispheres announced collaboration for North American Scalmalloy production, establishing first local supply chain using domestic materials for additive manufacturing [29]

Final Thoughts

Scandium’s narrative arc from Mendeleev’s theoretical “ekaboron” to today’s critical aerospace material illustrates both the power of scientific prediction and the unpredictable path of technological adoption. While its discovery validated the periodic table’s predictive framework, scandium’s true significance emerged only after decades of metallurgical research unlocked its remarkable ability to strengthen aluminum alloys.

The element that remained a laboratory curiosity for nearly a century now enables next-generation technologies from solid oxide fuel cells operating at lower temperatures to additively manufactured components pushing the boundaries of aerospace design. As production methods improve and costs decline, scandium stands poised to transition from specialty applications to broader industrial use, fulfilling a destiny that its discoverers could scarcely have imagined. The continuing evolution of scandium applications—from Formula 1 racing to hydrogen propulsion systems—suggests that this “miracle metal” may yet reveal new chapters in its ongoing history.

Thanks for reading!

References

[1] Scandium – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandium

[2] WebElements Periodic Table » Scandium » historical information – https://webelements.com/scandium/history.html

[3] A Historical Journey into the Discovery of Scandium – https://www.scandium.org/a-historical-journey-into-the-discovery-of-scandium/

[4] Discovery of Scandium – https://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Disc-of-Scandium.html

[5] It’s Elemental – The Element Scandium – https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele021.html

[6] On the Supply Dynamics of Scandium, Global Resources, Production, Oxide and Metal Price, a Prospective Modelling Study Using WORLD7 – https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41247-024-00118-y

[7] Scandium – https://periodic.lanl.gov/21.shtml

[8] Scandium | Chemical Element, Properties, & Uses | Britannica – https://www.britannica.com/science/scandium

[9] Scandium’s impact on the Additive Manufacturing of aluminium alloys – https://www.metal-am.com/articles/scandiums-impact-on-the-additive-manufacturing-of-aluminium-alloys/

[10] US3619181A – Aluminum scandium alloy – Google Patents – https://patents.google.com/patent/US3619181A/en

[11] Scandium Facts, Symbol, Discovery, Properties, Uses – https://www.chemistrylearner.com/scandium.html

[12] Scandium: Ore deposits, the pivotal role of magmatic enrichment and future exploration – ScienceDirect – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016913682031091X

[13] Strategic Defense Initiative – Wikipedia – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative

[14] US5620652A – Aluminum alloys containing scandium with zirconium additions – Google Patents – https://patents.google.com/patent/US5620652A/en

[15] What are Solid Oxide Fuel Cells? How Do They Work? – https://www.stanfordmaterials.com/blog/what-are-solid-oxide-fuel-cells.html

[16] Metallurgical processes for scandium recovery from various resources: A review – ScienceDirect – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304386X11000648

[17] US6711819B2 – Scandium containing aluminum alloy firearm – Google Patents – https://patents.google.com/patent/US6711819B2/en

[18] APWORKS and Additive Industries advance metal 3D printing to series production in aerospace – 3D Printing Industry – https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/apworks-and-additive-industries-advance-metal-3d-printing-to-series-production-in-aerospace-160166/

[19] Premium AEROTEC acquires 3D printing specialist APWORKS | VoxelMatters – The heart of additive manufacturing – https://www.voxelmatters.com/premium-aerotec-acquires-3d-printing-specialist-apworks/amp/

[20] Airbus APWorks launches the ‘Light Rider’: the world’s first 3D-printed motorcycle | Airbus – https://www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2016-05-airbus-apworks-launches-the-light-rider-the-worlds-first-3d-printed

[21] US9551050B2 – Aluminum alloy with additions of scandium, zirconium and erbium – Google Patents – https://patents.google.com/patent/US9551050B2/en

[22] Scandium | CM Group – https://www.cmgroup.net/industries/scandium/

[23] APWORKS’ Scalmalloy metal additive manufacturing material approved for use in Formula 1 – TCT Magazine – https://www.tctmagazine.com/additive-manufacturing-3d-printing-news/apworks-metal-additive-manufacturing-material-formula-1/

[24] Scandium: The ‘super alloy’ of the future that’s also the ‘secret sauce’ in solid oxide fuel cells – Stockhead – https://stockhead.com.au/resources/scandium-the-super-alloy-of-the-future-thats-also-the-secret-sauce-in-solid-oxide-fuel-cells/

[25] (PDF) On the supply dynamics of scandium, global resources, production, oxide and metal price, a prospective modelling study using WORLD7 – https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374299719_On_the_supply_dynamics_of_scandium_global_resources_production_oxide_and_metal_price_a_prospective_modelling_study_using_WORLD7

[26] APWORKS launches new Scalmalloy CX | VoxelMatters – The heart of additive manufacturing – https://www.voxelmatters.com/apworks-launches-new-scalmalloy-cx/

[27] Scandium Canada files US patent for Aluminum alloy AM powders – https://www.voxelmatters.com/scandium-canada-files-us-patent-for-aluminum-alloy-am-powders/

[28] Scandium Canada files US patent for aluminium-scandium alloy powders for AM – https://www.metal-am.com/scandium-canada-files-us-patent-for-aluminium-scandium-alloy-powders-for-additive-manufacturing/

[29] APWorks and Equispheres Announce Collaboration on North American Scalmalloy® Production for Additive Manufacturing – Equispheres – https://equispheres.com/apworks-and-equispheres-announce-collaboration-on-north-american-scalmalloy-production-for-additive-manufacturing/

[30] (PDF) USGS Mineral Commodity Report – Scandium – DOKUMEN.TIPS – https://dokumen.tips/documents/usgs-mineral-commodity-report-scandium.html

[31] Scandium in Commercial Wrought Aluminum Alloys | SpringerLink – https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-31867-2_15

[32] On the Supply Dynamics of Scandium, Global Resources, Production, Oxide and Metal Price, a Prospective Modelling Study Using WORLD7 | Biophysical Economics and Sustainability – https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41247-024-00118-y